Using Theory in Research

Using Theory in Research

Written by Kenneth S. Bordens and Bruce B. Abbott in Research Design and Methods, A Process Approach. New York. McGraw-Hill, pp. 32-47.
 

1. Definition
A theory is a partially verifi ed statement of a scientific relationship that cannot be directly observed. If the theory is stated formally, this statement consists of a set of interrelated propositions (and corollaries to those propositions) that attempt to specify the relationship between a variable (or set of variables) and some behavior. Not all scientific theories are expressed this way, but most could be.

2. Theory Versus Hypothesis
Students often confuse theory with hypothesis, and even professionals sometimes use these terms interchangeably. However, as usually defi ned, theories are more complex than hypotheses.

3. Theory Versus Law
A theory that has been substantially verifi ed is sometimes called a law. However, most laws do not derive from theories in this way. Laws are usually empirically verifi ed, quantitative relationships between two or more variables and thus are not normally subject to the disconfirmation that theories are.

4. Theory Versus Model
Like theory, the term model can refer to a range of concepts. In some cases, it is simply used as a synonym for theory. However, in most cases model refers to a specific implementation of a more general theoretical view.

5. Classifying Theories
Theories can be classified along several dimensions. Three important ones are
(1) quantitative or qualitative aspect,
(2) level of description, and
(3) scope (or domain) of the theory.

In light of these distinctions, we’ve organized our discussion by posing three questions that you can ask about any theory:
(1) Is the theory quantitative or qualitative?
(2) At what level of description does the theory operate?
(3) What is the theory’s domain?

6. Roles of Theory in Science
Theories have several roles to play in science. These roles include providing an understanding of the phenomena for which they account, providing a basis for prediction, and guiding the direction of research.
(1) Understanding
At the highest level, theories represent a particular way to understand the phenomena with which they deal. To the degree that a theory models an underlying reality, this understanding can be deep and powerful.

(2) Prediction
Even when theories do not provide a fundamental insight into the mechanisms of a behaving system (as descriptive theories do not), they at least can provide a way to predict the behavior of the system under different values of its controlling variables.

(3) Organizing and Interpreting Research Results
A theory can provide a sound framework for organizing and interpreting research results. For example, the results of an experiment designed to test Piaget’s theory will be organized within the existing structure of confi rmatory and disconfirmatory results. This organization is preferable to having a loose conglomeration of results on a topic.

(4) Generating Research
Finally, theories are valuable because they often provide ideas for new research. This is known as the heuristic value of a theory. The heuristic value of a theory is often independent of its validity. A theory can have heuristic value even when it is not supported by subsequent empirical research.

7. Characteristics of A Good Theory
In the history of psychology, many theories have been advanced to explain behavioral phenomena. Some of these theories have stood the test of time, whereas others have fallen by the wayside. Whether or not a theory endures depends on several factors, including the following.
(1) Ability to Account for Data
To be of any value, a theory must account for most of the existing data within its domain. Note that the amount of data is “most” rather than “all” because at least some of the data may in fact be unreliable. A theory can be excused for failing to account for erroneous data.

(2) Explanatory Relevance
A theory also must meet the criterion of explanatory relevance. That is, the explanation for a phenomenon provided by a theory must offer good grounds for believing that the phenomenon would occur under the specified conditions.

(3) Testability
A theory is testable if it is capable of failing some empirical test. That is, the theory specifi es outcomes under particular conditions, and if these outcomes do not occur, then the theory is rejected.

(4) Prediction of Novel Events
A good theory should predict new phenomena. Within its domain, a good theory should predict phenomena beyond those for which the theory was originally designed. Strictly speaking, such predicted phenomena do not have to be new in the sense of not yet observed. Rather, they must be new in the sense that they were not taken into account in the formulation of the theory.

(5) Parsimony
a theory should account for phenomena within its domain in the simplest terms possible and with the fewest assumptions. If there are two competing theories concerning a behavior, the one that explains the behavior in the simplest terms is preferred under the law of parsimony.