Case Study Method

             Case Study Method

written by
-Kumar Singh, Yogesh. 2006. Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic, Mumbai: New Age International Publisher.pp. 147-153.

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Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study leads to very novel idea and no longer limited to the particular individual. In case study investigator tries to collect the bits in support of proposition. One case study if we take specific than prediction value is less while if the case is the representative sample then it has high  prediction value. Case study methodological is not longitudinal study but it depends on the methods of information about the individual as far as possible.

Therefore, case study is conducted only for specific case. It requires personal observation, by or objective method. Actually case study means a study in depth. Here depth means to explore all peculiarities of case. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It gives a detailed knowledge about the phenomena and not able to generalize beyond the knowledge. In physical science every unit is the true representative of the population, but in education and the units may not be true representative of the population. There are individual differences as well as intra- individual differences. Therefore, prediction can not be made on the basis of knowledge. No statistical inferences can be drawn from the exploration of a phenomenon.

Here case does not necessarily mean an individual. Case means an unit, it may be an institution or a nation, or religion or may be an individual or a concept. Thus, case study refers to
• Close study of an unit,
• Deep study,
• Cumulative study, and
• Clinical study.

The case study is mostly done in police inquiry to investigate the case. The purpose is to find out the facts about the case so that true culprit would be punished. In research case study has entirely different purpose. The main purpose of case study is the development of case on the basis diagnosis which is done on the post records of the case. It establishes the cause and effect of relationship.

I. OBJECTIVES OF CASE STUDY
The case study has the following four main objectives:
1. Clinical purpose, (dealing with a patient).
2. Diagnostic purpose, (educational situation to provide the remedial instruction to poor students).
3. Fact-findings about psychological or educational problems.
4. Supplementing other information. It may be a follow up work. Phases of Case Study.

II. A Case Study is Conducted into Three Phases
1. Retrospective phase refers to the past records of the case completely which is used in diagnosing the case.
2. Prospective phase refers to the present status of the case, which is helpful in understanding the case. The suggestions and remediation can be offered to the case.
3. Conspective phase refers to the future development and improvement of the case which is also employed to examine the effects of the remediation given to the case.

III. TYPES OF CASE STUDY
Six types of case studies are conducted which are as follows:
1. A group or a community case study,
2. Casual comparative studies,
3. Activity analysis.
4. Content or document analysis,
5. A follow-up study, and
6. Trend studies.

IV. CRITERIA FOR A GOOD CASE STUDY
The essential characteristics of a satisfactory case study include continuity, completeness of data, validity of data, confidential recording and synthesis that is scientific.
1. Continuity
There should be desirable continuity of information provided by two successive psychological examinations at any internal of a year, and by an elementary school record in relation to performance in high school.
 
2. Completeness of Data
In so far as possible, the potential range of data or information includes symptoms, examination results, (psycho-physical, health, educational and mentality) and history (health, school, family and school).

3. Validity of Data
A doubtful birth data may be verified through the Bureau of vital statistics, and employment record by
reference to employers.

4. Confidential Recording
Educational workers have something to learn from medicine with respect to the confidential nature of
professional records, the difficulties of individual teachers or pupils in relation to discipline, failure, achievement or mentality should be recorded as professional problems to be treated in a confidential
manner.

5. Scientific Synthesis
This is an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere enumeration of data secured, it embraces diagnosis in identifying casual factor, and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedure.
If a case-study have all these characteristics, it will be an excellent study.

V. SOURCES OF CASE DATA
1. Personal Documents: Diaries, autobiographies, memoirs, letters, confession, etc.
2. Life history records.
3. Related Persons: Parents, neighbours, friends, teachers, etc.
4. Official Records: Baby books, school records, police courts, military organizations, clubs, institutions, etc.
5. The subject himself.

These sources have been defined in the following paras briefly.
1. Personal Documents
These possess the events of life of the subject and his reactions to them. They also represent a community of experience which helps to illuminate the writers’ personality, social reactions, and philosophy of life.

2. Life Histories
It is a combination of facts and events. Because of thin aid in studying complex behaviour and situations in scientific detail, Burgess refers to the life history as “the social microscope”. Life history data are generally gathered through prolonged interviews.

3. Related Persons
Here with the altogether different of view of the informers, the different aspects of the subjects’ life are attacked. Here ‘trait acquaintancy’ should be in the persons. Also, here chances of biases and misinterpretations are high, and it is the discriminating power of the researcher acting as a serve in separating the biased and factual facts.

4. Official Records
Most of the social and academic life is got from the official records.

5. Subject Himself
Sometimes of the patient or the subject may serve as the major source of data. But, however, here reliability of information is very low.

VI. THE STEPS OF CASE STUDY
If it is to be accepted as a scientific technique, the case study must follow essentially the same steps and meet essentially the same criteria as do the other research methods. On the other hand, it presents a number of problems which are relatively unique, either in kind or in degree. These are probably best considered in connection with the steps through which such a study must proceed. The following are the steps in the case study
Step 1 : Status of the Situation or Unit of Attention.
Step 2 : Collection of Data, Examination and History.
Step 3 : Diagnosis and Identification of Casual Factors.
Step 4 : Adjustment, Treatment and Therapy.
Step 5 : Follow up Programme.

Social Research in Brief

            Social Research in Brief


Written by Norman Blaikie in Analyzing Quantitative Data From Description to Explanation. London: SAGE. 2003. PP.34-36.


- Social research must start with a research problem, an intellectual puzzle or a practical problem.

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- Social research is about answering three types of research questions: ‘what’,‘why’ and ‘how’ questions.

- Social research pursues a range of objectives: exploration, description, explanation, understanding, prediction, intervention, evaluation and impact assessment. The objectives of explanation and understanding are expressed as ‘why’ questions and the objective of intervention as ‘how’ questions. The remaining objectives are mostly related to ‘what’ questions.

- Research objectives are frequently pursued in a logical sequence, the most common of which is description, explanation/understanding and intervention.

- Theoretical hypotheses provide possible answers to ‘why’ research questions.

- Statistical hypotheses are used to establish whether patterns found in a random sample are present in its population. This is their only role in social research.

- Data are produced by the use of the human senses, mainly sight and hearing,and through the use of instruments that extend and systematize their use. This requires agreement about rules and criteria. Such procedures do not guarantee objectivity, only comparability between times, places and researchers.

- All forms of measurement in the social sciences are socially constructed by experts, the data they produce, and the results that follow, have to be understood in terms of the assumptions and procedures adopted.

- These assumptions are both ontological and epistemological and, while they are usually taken for granted, they can be understood with reference to one of the major philosophies of social science: positivism, critical rationalism, scientific realism and interpretivism.

- There are three types of social science data: primary, secondary and tertiary. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages and varies in terms of the distance it creates between the researcher and the social reality being studied.

- Social science data can be either qualitative or quantitative, in either words or numbers. Transformations between words and numbers, or in the reverse direction, can occur at various stages in a research project.

- Quantitative data are expressed in the form of variables that are produced by operationalizing the key concepts in research questions and theoretical hypotheses.

- Concepts can be measured at four different levels. From lowest to highest,these are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The first two produce categorical variables, because objects, events or people are placed into one of a set of mutually exclusive categories. The second two produce metric variables,as objects, events or people are mapped onto an established measuring scale.

- Metric variables can be either discrete or continuous. The former consist only of whole numbers, while the latter have an unlimited number of possible values between the whole numbers.

- Data can be transformed from metric to categorical. While this means some loss of information, and entails the use of less sophisticated forms of analysis, it may allow for a better understanding of the characteristics or relationships being examined.

- There are four main types of data analysis: univariate descriptive, bivariate descriptive, explanatory and inferential. The first two are concerned with characteristics and patterns in data, the third with influence between variables and the fourth with generalizing from samples to populations. Explanatory analysis is the ultimate objective in social research and is also the most complex.

- Explanation is usually associated with the idea of causation. However, this is a highly contested notion and has to be reduced to simpler ideas to be Social research and data analysis useful in social research. One way of doing this is in terms of the influence between independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome) variables.

- Different views of causation are associated with the major logics of enquiry: inductive, deductive, retroductive and abductive. These logics also constitute different research strategies.

Lebih Jauh Mengenai Penelitian Eksperimen

Lebih Jauh Mengenai Penelitian Eksperimen
                       
                          Written by Ari Julianto

 



I. Pengertian
Umumnya penelitian eksperimen (experimental research) diartikan sebagai suatu penelitian yang meneliti pengaruh perlakuan terhadap perilaku yang timbul sebagai akibat perlakuan sebagaimana Alsa (2004) menyatakan. Sejalan dengan itu, Borg & Gall (1983), menyatakan bahwa penelitian eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang paling dapat diandalkan keilmiahannya (paling valid), karena dilakukan dengan pengontrolan secara ketat terhadap variabel-variabel pengganggu di luar yang dieksperimenkan.

Manurut Hadi (1985) penelitian eksperimen adalah riset atau penelitian yang dilakukan untuk mengetahui akibat yang ditimbulkan dari suatu perlakuan yang diberikan secara sengaja oleh peneliti. Selanjutnya, Sugiyono (2011) mengatakan bahwa metode eksperimen adalah metode penelitian yang digunakan untuk mencari pengaruh perlakuan tertentu terhadap yang lain dalam kondisi yang terkendalikan. Menurut Sukardi (2011), penelitian eksperimen dalam bidang pendidikan dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu penelitian di dalam laboratorium dan di luar laboratorium.

Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, Latipun (2002) mengemukakan bahwa penelitian eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang dilakukan dengan melakukan manipulasi yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui akibat manipulasi terhadap perilaku individu yang diamati. Penelitian eksperimen pada prisipnya dapat didefinisikan sebagai metode sistematis guna membangun hubungan yang mengandung fenomena sebab akibat (causal-effect relationship).

Sehubungan dengan subjek dalam pendidikan adalah siswa, penelitian yang paling banyak dilakukan adalah di luar laboratorium. Hal ini dikarenakan terdapat beberapa keunggulan yang dimiliki oleh penelitian di luar laboratorium, diantaranya:
1. variabel eksperimen dapat lebih kuat;
2. lebih mudah dalam memberikan perlakuan;
3. dapat melakukan setting yang mendekati keadaan sebenarnya; dan
4. hasil eksperimen lebih aktual.

Selain itu, penelitian eksperimen juga lebih cocok dilakukan dalam bidang pendidikan. Hal ini dikarenakan dua alasan sebagai berikut:
1. metode pengajaran yang lebih tepat disetting secara alami dan dikomparasikan di dalam keadaan yang
tidak bias;
2. penelitian dasar dengan tujuan menurunkan  prinsip umum teoritis ke dalam ilmu terapan yang sesuai dengan permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh sekolah

II. Karakteristik Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Ary (1985), ada tiga karakteristik penting dalam
1. Variabel bebas yang dimanipulasi
2. Variabel lain yang berpengaruh dikontrol agar tetap konstan
3. Observasi langsung oleh peneliti

Karakteristik lainnya adalah:
1. Metode eksperimen merupakan satu-satunya metode penelitian yang dianggap paling dapat menguji hipotesis hubungan sebab-akibat, atau paling dapat memenuhi validitas internal.
2. Metode eksperimen merupakan rancangan penelitian yang memberikan pengujian hipotesis yang paling ketat dibanding jenis penelitian yang lain.
3. Metode eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang digunakan untuk mencari pengaruh perlakuan tertentu terhadap dampaknya dalam kondisi yang terkendalikan.

Ciri khas yang membedakan penelitian eksperimen dengan penelitian yang lain:
a. Satu atau lebih variabel bebas dimanipulasi (kondisinya dibuat berbeda, misal: treatment dan non-treatment)
b. Semua variabel lainnya, kecuali variabel perlakuan (variabel bebas), dikendalikan (dipertahankan tetap).
c. Pengaruh manipulasi variabel bebas (pemberian perlakuan) terhadap variabel terikat diamati, dengan asumsi karena diberi perlakuan yang berbeda maka akan berdampak yang berbeda pula.
d. Adanya komparasi, sehingga perlu penyamaan antara kelompok yang akan dikenai perlakuan dengan kelompok yang tidak dikenai perlakuan (dua kelompok yang akan dibandingkan tersebut harus komparabel).

III. Tujuan Penelitian Eksperimen
Untuk meneliti pengaruh dari suatu perlakuan tertentu terhadap gejala suatu kelompok tertentu dibanding dengan kelompok lain yang menggunakan perlakuan yang berbeda. Selanjutnya, tindakan di dalam eksperimen disebut treatment, dan diartikan sebagai semua tindakan, semua variasi atau pemberian kondisi yang akan dinilai/diketahui pengaruhnya. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan menilai tidak terbatas pada mengukur atau melakukan deskripsi atas pengaruh treatment yang dicobakan tetapi juga ingin menguji sampai seberapa besar tingkat signifikansinya (kebermaknaan atau berarti tidaknya) pengaruh tersebut jika dibandingkan dengan kelompok yang sama tetapi diberi perlakuan yang berbeda.

IV. Syarat-syarat Penelitian Eksperimen
Wilhelm Wundt dalam Alsa (2004) mengemukakan syarat-syarat sebagai berikut:
1. peneliti harus dapat menentukan secara sengaja kapan dan di mana ia akan melakukan penelitian;
2. penelitian terhadap hal yang sama harus dapat diulang dalam kondisi yang sama;
3. peneliti harus dapat memanipulasi (mengubah, mengontrol) variabel yang diteliti sesuai dengan yang dikehendakinya;
4. diperlukan kelompok pembanding (control group) selain kelompok yang diberi perlakukan (experimental group).

V. Proses Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Gay (1982) prosesnya antara lain:
1. Permasalahan yang signifikan untuk diteliti.
2. Pemilihan subjek yang cukup untuk dibagi dalam kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol.
3. Pembuatan atau pengembangan instrumen.
4. Pemilihan desain penelitian.
5. Eksekusi prosedur.
6. Melakukan analisis data.
7. Memformulasikan simpulan.

VI. Bentuk-bentuk Desain Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Sugiyono (2011) terdapat beberapa bentuk desain eksperimen, yaitu:
1. pre-experimental (nondesign) yang meliputi
a. one-shot case study
Ini dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan kekuatan pengukuran dan nilai ilmiah suatu desain penelitian.

                       X                                                                        O
Perlakuan terhadap variabel independen  Pengamatan atau pengukuran terhadap variabel dependen
(Treatment of independent variable)     (Observation or measurement of dependent variable)

b. One group pretestposttest
Perbedaan dengan desain pertama adalah, untuk the one group pretest-posttest design, terdapat pretest sebelum diberi perlakuan, hasil perlakuan dapat diketahui dengan lebih akurat, karena dapat membandingkan dengan keadaan sebelum diberi perlakuan.

                    O1                                                      X                                        O2
                Pretest                                             Treatment                               Posttest

Pengaruh perlakuan: O1 – O2.

c. the static-group comparison.
Ini menggunakan satu group yang dibagi menjadi dua, yang satu memperoleh stimulus eksperimen (yang diberi perlakuan) dan yang lain tidak mendapatkan stimulus apapun sebagai alat kontrol. Masalah yang akan muncul dalam desain ini adalah meyangkut resiko penyeleksian terhadap subjek yang akan diteliti. Oleh karena itu, grup tersebut harus dipilih secara acak.

                                  X                                                             O1
                                 __________________________________                                                                                                  O2
O1: hasil pengukuran satu grup yang diberi perlakuan, dan
O2: hasil pengukuran satu grup yang tidak diberi perlakuan.
Pengaruh perlakuan: O1 – O2.

2. true-experimental
Ini mempunyai ciri utama yaitu sampel yang digunakan untuk eksperimen maupun sebagai kelompok kontrol diambil secara random dari populasi tertentu. Atau dengan kata lain dalam true experiments pasti ada kelompok kontrol dan pengambilan sampel secara random.

a. pretest-posttes control group design
Dalam desain ini terdapat dua grup yang dipilih secara random kemudian diberi pretest untuk mengetahui perbedaan keadaan awal antara group eksperimen dan group kontrol.

                          R                          O1                          X                           O2
                          R                          O3                                                        O4
Pengaruh perlakuan adalah: (O2 - O1) - (O4 - O3).

b. posttest-only control group design
Dalam desain ini terdapat dua kelompok yang masing-masing dipilih secara random (R). Grup pertama diberi perlakuan (X) dan grup yang lain tidak.

                R                        X                           O1
                R                                                      O2

3. factorial experimental
Desain merupakan modifikasi dari design true experimental, yaitu dengan memperhatikan kemungkinan adanya variabel moderator yang mempengaruhi perlakuan terhadap hasil. Semua grup dipilih secara random kemudian diberi pretest. Grup yang akan digunakan

untuk penelitian dinyatakan baik jika setiap kelompok
memperoleh nilai pretest yang sama.

4. Quasi experimental
Quasiexperiments disebut juga dengan eksperimen pura-pura. Bentuk desain ini merupakan pengembangan dari trueexperimental design yang sulit dilaksanakan.
Desain ini mempunyai variabel kontrol tetapi tidak digunakan sepenuhnya untuk mengontrol variabel luar yang mempengaruhi pelaksanaan eksperimen.
Bentuk-bentuk quasiexperiments antara lain:
a. Time Series Design
Ciri desain ini adalah grup yang digunakan tidak dapat dipilih secara random.
b. Nonequivalent control group design
Desain ini hampir sama dengan pretest-posttest control group design, tetapi pada desain ini group eksperimen maupun group kontrol tidak dipilih secara random.


Referensi
Alsa, Asmadi. 2004. Pendekatan Kuantitatif Kualitatif dalam Penelitian Psikologi.Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Ary, D., Jacob, L.C. and Razavieh, A. 1985. Introduction to Research in Education.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gay, L.R. 1983. Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application. Ohio: A Bell & Howell Company.
Hadi, Sutrisno. 1985. Metodologi Research Jilid 4. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Penerbit Fakultas Psikologi UGM.
Latipun. 2002 Psikologi Eksperimen. Malang: UMM Press.
Sukardi. 2011. Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan Kompetensi dan Praktiknya.Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara.

Dan berbagai sumber lainnya.

Types of Research Designs

             Types of Research Designs

Written by Nicholas Walliman in Research Methods The Basic.London: Routledge.2011. pp. 9-13


There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the different types of research projects. The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the problems posed by the research aims. Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data that is generated by the investigations. Here is a list of some of the more common research designs, with a short explanation of the characteristics of each.



1. Historical
This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events. It uses primary historical data, such as archaeological remains as well as documentary sources of the past. It is usually necessary to carry out tests in order to check the authenticity of these sources. Apart from informing us about what happened in previous times and re-evaluating beliefs about the past, historical research can be used to find contemporary solutions based on the past and to inform present and future trends. It stresses the importance of interactions and their effect.

2. Descriptive
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances. ‘Observation’ can take many forms. Depending on the type of information sought, people can be interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even sounds and smells recorded. Important is that the observations are written down or recorded in some way, in order that they can be subsequently analysed. The scale of the research is influenced by two major factors: the level of complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.

3. Correlation 
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts. There are two broad classifications of relational statements: an association between two concepts – where there is some kind of influence of one on the other; and a causal relationship – where one causes changes to occur in the other. Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’ relationship. The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable that is affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’. The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no correlation); positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or decrease results in a decrease); or negative (where the increase in one results in the decrease in the other or vice versa). The degree of association is often measurable.

4. Comparative
This design is used to compare past and present or different parallel situations, particularly when the researcher has no control over events. It can look at situations at different scales, macro (international, national) or micro (community, individual). Analogy is used to identify similarities in order to predict results – assuming that if two events are similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in others too. In this way comparative design is used to explore and test what conditions were necessary to cause certain events, so that it is possible, for example, to understand the likely effects of making certain decisions.

5. Experimental
Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition which determines the events investigated and then observes the effects when the conditions are manipulated. At its simplest, changes are made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on a dependent variable – i.e. cause and effect. Although experiments can be done to explore a particular event, they usually require a hypothesis (prediction) to be formulated first in order to determine what variables are to be tested and how they can be controlled and measured. There are several classes of experiment – pre, true, quasi, etc. which are characterized by the amount of checking and control involved in the methods.

6. Simulation
Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model) of a system, which can be manipulated to gauge effects. It is similar to experimental design in the respect of this manipulation, but it provides a more artificial environment in that it does work with original materials at the same scale. Models can be mathematical (number crunching in a computer) or physical, working with two- or three-dimensional materials. The performance of the model must be checked and calibrated against the real system to check that the results are reliable. Simulation enables theoretical situations to be tested – what if?

7. Evaluation
This descriptive type of research is specifically designed to deal with complex social issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just  getting the facts’,by trying to make sense of the myriad human, political, social, cultural and contextual elements involved. There are a range of different approaches of evaluation models, for example, systems analysis – which is a holistic type of research looking at the complex interplay of many variables; and responsive evaluation – which entails a series of investigative steps to evaluate how responsive a programme is to all those taking part in it. A common purpose of  evaluation research is to examine the working of projects from the point of  view of levels of awareness, costs and benefits, cost-effectiveness, attainment of  objectives and quality assurance. The results are generally used to prescribe changes to improve and develop the situation.

8. Action
Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal with a specific problem found in a particular situation. There is no attempt made to separate the problem from its context in order to study it in isolation. What are thought to be useful changes are made and then constant monitoring and evaluation are carried out to see the effects of the changes. The conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further monitored to gauge their effectiveness.Action research depends mainly on observation and behavioural data. Because it is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to generalize the results, i.e. to be confident that the action will be successful in another context.

9. Ethnological
Ethnological research focuses on people. In this approach, the researcher is interested in how the subjects of the research interpret their own behaviour rather than imposing a theory from outside. It takes place in the undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment. It regards the context to be as equally important as the actions it studies, and attempts to represent the totality of the social, cultural and economic situation. This is not easy as much of culture is hidden and rarely made explicit and the cultural background and assumptions of the researcher may unduly influence the interpretations and descriptions. Moreover there can be confusions produced by the use of language and the different meanings which may be given to words by the respondents and researcher.

10. Feminist
This is more of a perspective than a research design that involves theory and analysis that highlight the differences between men’s and women’s lives. Researchers who ignore these differences can come to incorrect conclusions. However, everyone is male or female, so value neutrality is impossible as no researcher practises research outside his or her system of values. No specific methods are seen to be particularly feminist, but the methodology used is informed by theories of gender relations. Although feminist research is undertaken with a political commitment to identify and transform gender relations, it is not uniquely political, but exposes all methods of social research as being political.

11. Cultural
Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (e.g. postmodernism, poststructuralism etc.) are concerned with the subjects of language and cultural interpretation. Cultural research provides methodologies that allow a consistent analysis of cultural texts so that they can be compared, replicated, disproved and generalized. Examples of approaches to the interpretation of cultural texts are: content analysis, semiotics and discourse analysis. The meaning of the term ‘cultural texts’ has been broadened from that of purely literary works to that of the many different forms of communication, both formal such as opera, TV news programmes, cocktail parties etc., and informal such as how people dress or converse.

Types of Business Research

Types of Business Research

Written by William G. Zikmund, Barry J. Babin, Jon C. Carr, and Mitch Griffin in Business Research Methods. South-Western Cengage Learning. 2009.


Business research covers a wide range of phenomena. For managers, the purpose of research is to provide knowledge regarding the organization, the market, the economy, or another area of uncertainty. 

I. Definition
Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and organizational performance. Business research is more than conducting surveys.

This process includes idea and theory development, problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing data, and communicating the findings and their implications. This definition suggests that business research information is not intuitive or haphazardly gathered.

Literally, research (re-search) means “to search again.” The term connotes patient study and scientific investigation wherein the researcher takes another, more careful look at the data to discover all that is known about the subject. Ultimately, all findings are tied back to the underlying theory.

The definition also emphasizes, through reference to the scientific method, that any information generated should be accurate and objective. The nineteenth-century American humorist Artemus Ward claimed, “It ain’t the things we don’t know that gets us in trouble. It’s the things we know that ain’t so.” In other words, research isn’t performed to support preconceived ideasbut to test them. The researcher must be personally detached and free of bias in attempting to find truth. If bias enters into the research process, the value of the research is considerably reduced.

Finally, this definition of business research is limited by one’s definition of business. Certainly, research regarding production, finance, marketing, and management in for-profit corporations like DuPont is business research. However, business research also includes efforts that assist nonprofit organizations such as the American Heart Association, the San Diego Zoo, the Boston Pops Orchestra, or a parochial school. Further, governmental agencies such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) perform many functions that are similar, if not identical, to those of for-profit business organizations. For instance,  the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an important user of research, employing it to address the way people view and use various food and drugs. One such study commissioned and funded research to address the question of how consumers used the risk summaries that are included with all drugs sold in the United States. 

II. Types of Business Research
Business research is undertaken to reduce uncertainty and focus decision making. In more ambiguous circumstances, management may be totally unaware of a business problem. Alternatively, someone may be scanning the environment for opportunities. For example, an entrepreneur may have a personal interest in softball and baseball. She is interested in converting her hobby into a profitable business venture and hits on the idea of establishing an indoor softball and baseball training facility and instructional center. However, the demand for such a business is unknown. Even if there is sufficient demand, she is not sure of the best location, actual services offered, desired hours of operation, and so forth. Some preliminary research is necessary to gain insights into the nature of such a situation. Without it, the situation may remain too ambiguous to make more than a seat-of-the-pants decision. In this situation, business research is almost certainly needed.

In other situations, researchers know exactly what their problems are and can design careful studies to test specific hypotheses. For example, an organization may face a problem regarding health care benefits for their employees. Awareness of this problem could be based on input from human resource managers, recruiters, and current employees. The problem could be contributing to difficulties in recruiting new employees. How should the organization’s executive team address this problem? They may devise a careful test exploring which of three different health plans are judged the most desirable. This type of research is problem-oriented and seems relatively unambiguous.

This process may culminate with researchers preparing a report suggesting the relative effect of each alternative plan on employee recruitment. The selection of a new health plan should follow relatively directly from the research.

Business research can be classified on the basis of either technique or purpose. Experiments, surveys, and observational studies are just a few common research techniques. Classifying research by its purpose, such as the situations described above, shows how the nature of a decision situation influences the research methodology. The following section introduces the three types of business research: 

1. Exploratory
Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential business opportunities. As the name implies, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence from which to determine a particular course of action. 

2. Descriptive
As the name implies, the major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of objects, people, groups, organizations, or environments. In other words, descriptive research tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation by addressing who, what, when, where, and how questions. 

3. Causal
Causal research seeks to identify causeand-effect relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it brings it about or makes it happen. The effect is the outcome. Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and wet grass is the effect. 

III. Stages in the Research Process
Business research, like other forms of scientific inquiry, involves a sequence of highly interrelated activities. The stages of the research process overlap continuously, and it is clearly an oversimplification to state that every research project has exactly the same ordered sequence of activities. Nevertheless, business research often follows a general pattern. We offer the following research business stages:
1. Defining the research objectives
2. Planning a research design
3. Planning a sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Analyzing the data
6. Formulating the conclusions and preparing the report

Ragam Jenis Penelitian

                            Ragam Jenis Penelitian

Written by Ari Julianto

Penelitian dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi bermacam-macam. Klasifikasi tersebut dapat dilakukan berdasarkan beberapa tinjauan. Secara umum setiap ilmu pengetahuan bertujuan mengembangkan ilmu baru dan secara khusus ilmu pengetahuan bertujuan:
1. menggambarkan (to describe)
2. meramalkan (to predict)
3. mengendalikan (to control)
4. menerangkan (to explain)

Namun, beberapa ahli dan penulis memiliki klasifikasi yang berbeda tergantung dari sudut pandang dan penilaian mereka masing-masing. Berikut rangkuman jenis-jenis penelitian ditinjau dari beragam aspek.
P = Penelitian
R = Research
S = Studi/Study

1. Berdasarkan Bidang Ilmu
a. P. Pendidikan (Educational R.)
b. P. Kedokteran (Medical R.)
c. P. Keperawatan (Nursing R.)
dan sebagainya

2. Berdasarkan Pendekatan dan Bentuk Data
a. P. Kuantitatif (Quantitative R.)
b. P. Kualitatif (Qualitative R.)

3. Berdasarkan Tempat
a. P. Perpustakaan (Library R.)
b. P. Laborartorium (Laboratory R.)
c. P. Lapangan (Field R.)

4. Berdasarkan Pemakaiannya
a. P. Murni (Pure R. or Basic R.)
b. P. Terapan (Applied R.)

5. Berdasarkan Tujuan Umumnya
a. P. Eksploratif (Explorative R.)
b. P. Pengembangan (Developmental R.)
c. P. verifikatif (Verificative R.)

6. Berdasarkan Tarafnya
a. P. Deskriptif (Descriptive R.)
b. P. Analitik    (Analytic R.)

7. Berdasarkan Metode dan Pendekatan Sumber
a. P. Longitudinal(Longitudinal R.)
b. P. penampang-silang (Cross-sectional R.)

8. Menurut Pembentukan Ilmu
a. P. Induktif (Inductive R.)
b. P. Deduktif (Deductive R.)

9. Menurut Paradigma Keilmuan
a. P. Positivisme (Positivism R.)
b. P. Rasionalisme (Rationalism R.)
c. P. Fenomenologi (Phenomenology R.)

10. Menurut Strategi dan jenis data
a. P. Opini (Opinion R.)
b. P. Empiris (Emphirical R.)
c. P. Kearsipan (Archival R.)
d. P. Analitis (Analytical R.)

11. Menurut Sumbernya
a. P.Historis (Historical R.)
b. P.Deskriptif  (Descriptive R.)
c. P.Perkembangan (Developmental R.)
d. S.Kasus/Lapangan (Field/Case S.)
e. P.Korelasional (Correlational R.)
f. P.Eksperimental sungguhan Real Experimental R.)
g. P.Eksperimental semu (Quasi Experimental R.)
h. P.Kausal-komparatif (Causal Comprative R.)
i. P.Tindakan (Action R.)

12. Berdasarkan Karakteristik Masalah
a. P. Historis (Historical R.)
b. P. Desktriptif  (Descriptive R.)
c. Studi kasus lapangan (Field/Case S.)
d. P.Korelasional (Correlational R.)
e. P.Kausal-komparatif (Causal Comparative R.)
f. P.Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

13. Menurut Tingkat Eksplanasi
a. P. Deskriptif (Descriptive R.)
b. P. Komparatif(Comparative R.)
c. P. Asosiatif (Associative R.)

14. Menurut Caranya
a.P. Operasional (Operational R.)
b.P. Tindakan (Action R.)
c.P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

15. Menurut Metodenya
a. P. Survei (Survey R.)
b. P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)
c. P. Expose Facto
d. P. Naturalistik/Alamiah
e. P. Tindakan (Action R.)
f. P. Evaluasi (Evaluation R.)
g. P. Kebijakan (Judisficational R.)
h. P. Sejarah (Historical R.)

16. Menurut Saat Terjadi Variabel   
a. P. Historis (Historical R.)
b. P. Ekspos Facto (Expose Facto R.)
c. P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

17. Menurut Manfaat Penelitian
a. P. Dasar/ Murni (Basic/Pure R.)
b. P. Terapan (Applied R.)
   (1) P. Tindakan (Action R.)
   (2) P. Evaluatif (Evaluative R.)
   (3) P. Formatif (Formative R.)
   (4) P. Sumatif (Summative R.)

18. Waktu Penelitian
a. P. Cross Sectional
b. P. Longitudinal/Time Series
   (1). Panel S.
   (2). Time Series
   (3) Cohort S.

19. Teknik Pengumpulan Data
a. Data Kuantitatif (Quantitative R.)
   (1) P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)
   (2) P. Survei (Survey R.)
   (3) P. Analisis isi (Content analisis R.)
   (4) P. Existing statistic
b. Data Kualitatif (Qualitative R.)
   (1). P. Lapangan (field research)
   (2). P. Sejarah (Historical R.)

(Dikutip dan disimpulkan dari beragam sumber literatur)

Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amien.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research in Education

                                    Advantages and Disadvantages 
                            of Experimental Research in Education

 
Written by Daniel Muijs in Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. 2004. London. SAGE Publications Ltd. pp 22-26.


I. Advantages
One of the things we are often trying to do in quantitative research is determine what causes what – what is cause and what is effect. Often when talking about the results of research, the term ‘cause’ is used both frequently and loosely, e.g. ‘an overly academic curriculum is a cause of pupil disaffection’.Many studies want to determine causes, and policy frequently wants to address causes of perceived problems (e.g. ‘the causes of crime’).

In experimental studies the researcher is manipulating the treatment so we can be certain of the time sequence. Likewise, the problem of extraneous variables causing a relationship is less strong in experimental research than in any other type of research because the experimenter can control the environment and ensure that as few extraneous factors are involved as possible, as we saw in the section on how to design experiments.

Does this mean that when we do an experiment and find a significant result, we can be certain of cause and effect? This is clearly not the case, for the following reasons:

1. Results from a single experiment may be due to chance. Only if research is replicated, i.e. the findings are repeated in different studies using different participants, preferably in slightly different settings, can we be certain of this.
2. It is always possible that findings are caused by an extraneous factor that we haven’t thought of when setting up our experiment.
3. We are creating an artificial situation. Therefore the question remains: do these effects occur in real-life
situations?

II. Disadvantages
 This leads us to some of the weaknesses of the experimental approach. The laboratory set-up is always an artificial one, and the correspondence to real-life situations can be questionable. How applicable are the results of experiments to real-life educational situations? Here, the control that is an advantage of the experimental method becomes a disadvantage.

In everyday settings, any causal effect found in an experimental setting is likely to be influenced by a whole load of contextual factors and influences which will tend to make the relationship far less predictable than in a laboratory setting.

Remember, for example, the study on the effect of violent video games  While in an experimental study we may find an effect of watching these videos on children’s behaviour, it is rare that children will be in a situation in which the video will be the only influence on their behaviour. When they are actually playing at school, for example, interactions with peers, school rules, weather, etc. will all influence their behaviour as well.

If we look at the other example about presentation of material in animated form, we would have to question whether this effect really matters in practice, or if it is so small that it makes no real difference to learning in classroom situations compared to other factors (such as teacher interactions).

Transferability is clearly an issue in educational experimental research.Another problem with experimental research is that it can be difficult to put into practice in educational settings. Consider, for example, the issue of evaluating educational programmes and initiatives. We might want to do this using an experimental design because we want to see whether he intervention has caused an improvement in the school. We might want to develop an intervention to improve the reading performance of pupils and would involve randomly assigning pupils to the treatment and control groups in the school in which the experiment is taking place.

This is often problematic in practice. Teachers and parents will be unlikely to be overly keen on this type of design, and there are obvious ethical issues in allowing one group of pupils to receive an intervention that we think/hope is effective while other pupils do not receive this intervention.

In practical terms, realigning timetables etc. to facilitate the experimental design is also difficult. The difficulties are even larger when one is doing an experiment in a number of schools.A further problem occurs when we are implementing an intervention that is specifically designed to take place in a classroom, such as a new teaching method. Obviously, there would

be problems in trying to randomly allocate pupils to teachers who did and did not implement the intervention. As in the example above, this would be disruptive to the school, and lead to possible ethical issues as well as potentially to complaints from parents. Another major problem would be the lack of control over the environment.

In a classroom situation, there is a whole variety of other influences that may affect outcomes, making it difficult to ascribe effects to the intervention. The teachers may be differentially effective, peers may influence each other, and so on. However, taking the intervention out of the classroom and putting it in the laboratory might make the results suspect with regards to transferability. If an intervention is supposed to work in the classroom, testing it in an artificial laboratory environment often would not seem sensible. Because of these problems, educational interventions in schools are typically evaluated using quasi-experimental designs.

Basic Research Design

             Basic Research Design

 Written by Nicholas Walliman in Research Methods: The Basics. 2011. New York. Routledge

There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the different types of research projects. The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the problems posed by the research aims. Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data that is generated by the investigations. Here is a list of some of the more common research designs, with a short explanation of the characteristics of each.

1. HISTORICAL
This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events. It uses primary historical data, such as archaeological remains as well as documentary sources of the past. It is usually necessary to carry out tests in order to check the authenticity of these sources.

Apart from informing us about what happened in previous times and re-evaluating beliefs about the past, historical research can be used to find contemporary solutions based on the past and to inform present and future trends. It stresses the importance of interactions and their effects.

2. DESCRIPTIVE
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm,i.e. what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances. ‘Observation’ can take many forms. Depending on the type of information sought, people can be interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even sounds and smells recorded. Important is that the observations are written down or recorded in some way, in order that they can be subsequently analysed. The scale of the research is influenced by two major factors: the level of complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.

3. CORRELATION
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts.There are two broad classifications of relational statements: an association between two concepts – where there is some kind of influence of one on the other; and a causal relationship – where one causes changes to occur in the other. Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’ relationship. The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable that is affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’.

The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no correlation);positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or decrease results in a decrease); or negative (where the increase in one results in the decrease in the other or vice versa). The degree of association is often measurable.

4. COMPARATIVE
This design is used to compare past and present or different parallel situations,particularly when the researcher has no control over events. It can look at situations at different scales, macro (international, national) or micro (community, individual). Analogy is used to identify similarities in order to predict results – assuming that if two events are similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in others too.

In this way comparative design is used to explore and test what conditions were necessary to cause certain events, so that it is possible, for example, to understand the likely effects of making certain decisions.

5. EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition which determines the events investigated and then observes the effects when the conditions are manipulated. At its simplest,changes are made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on a dependent variable – i.e. cause and effect. Although experiments can be done to explore a particular event, they usually require a hypothesis (prediction) to be formulated first in order to determine what variables are to be tested and how they can be controlled and measured. There are several classes of experiment – pre,true, quasi, etc. which are characterized by the amount of checking and control involved in the methods.

6. SIMULATION
Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model) of a system, which can be manipulated to gauge effects. It is similar to experimental design in the respect of this manipulation, but it provides a more artificial environment in that it does work with original materials at the same scale. Models can be mathematical (number crunching in a computer) or physical, working with two- or three-dimensional materials. The performance of the model must be checked and calibrated against the real system to check that the results are reliable. Simulation enables theoretical situations to be tested – what if?

7. EVALUATION
This descriptive type of research is specifically designed to deal with complex social issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’,by trying to make sense of the myriad human, political, social, cultural and contextual elements involved. There are a range of different approaches of evaluation models, for example, systems analysis – which is a holistic type of research looking at the complex interplay of many variables; and responsive evaluation – which entails a series of investigative steps to evaluate how responsive a programme is to all those taking part in it. A common purpose of evaluation research is to examine the working of projects from the point of view of levels of awareness, costs and benefits, cost-effectiveness, attainment of objectives and quality assurance. The results are generally used to prescribe changes to improve and develop the situation.

8. ACTION
Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal with a specific problem found in a particular situation. There is no attempt made to separate the problem from its context in order to study it in isolation. What are thought to be useful changes are made and then constant monitoring and evaluation are carried out to see the effects of the changes. The conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further monitored to gauge their effectiveness.

Action research depends mainly on observation and behavioural data. Because it is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to generalize the results, i.e. to be confident that the action will be successful in another context.

9. ETHNOLOGICAL
Ethnological research focuses on people. In this approach, the researcher is interested in how the subjects of the research interpret their own behaviour rather than imposing a theory from outside. It takes place in the undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment. It regards the context to be as equally important as the actions it studies,and attempts to represent the totality of the social, cultural and economic situation. This is not easy as much of culture is hidden and rarely made explicit and the cultural background and assumptions of the researcher may unduly influence the interpretations and descriptions. Moreover there can be confusions produced by the use of language and the different meanings which may be given to words by the respondents and researcher.

10. CULTURAL
Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (e.g. postmodernism, poststructuralism etc.) are concerned with the subjects of language and cultural interpretation. Cultural research provides methodologies that allow a consistent analysis of cultural texts so that they can be compared, replicated, disproved and generalized. Examples of approaches to the interpretation of cultural texts are: content analysis, semiotics and discourse analysis. The meaning of the term ‘cultural texts’ has been broadened from that of purely literary works to that of the many different forms of communication, both formal such as opera, TV news programmes, cocktail parties etc., and informal such as how people dress or converse.

Jenis-jenis Desain Ekperimental

Jenis-jenis Desain Ekperimental
                                Written by Ari Julianto



Posting kali ini saya ingin membahas tentang beragam desain penelitian eksperiemntal. Ditinjau berdasarkan tingkat pengendalian variable, desain penelitian eksperimental dapat dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu :

a. Desain penelitian pra-eksperimental (Pre-experiment),
b. desain penelitian eksperimental semu (Quasy Experiment), dan
c. desain penelitian eksperimental sungguhan (True Experiment).



1.Desain penelitian pra-eksperimental (Pre-experiment)
Desain penelitian pra-eksperimental ada tiga jenis yaitu
1) one-shot case study, 2) one-group pre-post test design, dan 3) static group design sebagaimana menurut Suryabrata (2000 : 55), Fraenkel dan Wallen (2008: 265).

a. One-shot case study
Prosedur desain penelitian one-shot case study adalah sebagai berikut. Sekolompok subjek dikenai perlakuan tertentu (sebagai variable bebas) kemudian dilakukan pengukuran terhadap variable bebas. Desain penelitian ini secara visual seperti berikut

SUBJECT        PRE        TREATMENT       POST
1 GROUP           -                 X                       0

b. One group pretest-posttes design
Prosedur desain penelitian ini adalah :
a) dilakukan pengukuran variable tergantung dari satu kelompok subjek (pretest),
b) subjek diberi perlakuan untuk jangka waktu tertentu (exposure),
c) dilakukan pengukuran ke-2 (posttest) terhadap variable bebas, dan
d) hasil pengukuran prestest dibandingan dengan hasil pengukuran posttest. Prosedur one group pretest-posttest design dapat digambarkan seperti berikut

SUBJECT         PRE       TREATMENT      POST
1 GROUP           0                    X                   0

c. Static Group Comparison
Desain ketiga adalah static group comparison yang merupakan modifikasi dari desain b. Dalam desain ini terdapat dua kelompok yang dipilih sebagai objek penelitian. Kelompok pertama mendapatkan perlakuan sedang kelompok kedua tidak mendapat perlakuan. Kelompok kedua ini berfungsi sebagai kelompok pembanding / pengontrol. Desainnya adalah sebagai berikut

SUBJECT                 PRE         TREATMENT     POST
EXPERIMENTAL       0                    X                   0
CONTTROL              -                      -                   0

2. Desain penelitian eksperimen semu (quasy-experiment)
Desain penelitian eksperimen semu berupaya mengungkap hubungan sebab akibat dengan cara melibatkan kelompok kontrol dan kelompok ekperimen tetapi pemilihan kedua kelompok tersebut tidak dilakukan secara acak (Nursalam, 2003 : 89). Kedua kelompok tersebut ada secara alami. Desain penelitian jenis ini dapat digambarkan sebagai berikut

SUBJECT              PRE       TREATMENT      POST
EXPERIMENTAL    0                  X                    0
CONTTROL            0                 -                      0

3. Desain eksperimen sungguhan (true-experiment)
Desain ini memiliki karakteristik dilibatkannya kelompok kontrol dan kelompok eksperimen yang ditentukan secara acak. Ada tiga jenis desain penelitian yang termasuk desain eksperimental sungguhan , yaitu :
1) pasca-tes dengan kelompok eksperimen dan control yang diacak,
2) pra-tes dan pasca-tes dengan kelompok eksperimen dan kontrol yang diacak, dan
3) gabungan desain pertama dan kedua.

(1) Pasca-tes dengan pemilihan kelompok secara acak
Pada rancangan ini kelompok eksperimen diberi perlakuan sedangkan kelompok kontrol tidak. Pengukuran hanya diberikan satu kali yaitu setelah perlakuan diberikan kepada kelompok eksperimen. Desaian ini dapat digambarkan sebagai berikut.

SUBJECT               PRE       TREATMENT     POST
EXPERIMENTAL     -                    X                   0
CONTTROL             -                   -                     0

(2) Pra dan pasca tes dengan pemilihan kelompok secara acak
Dalam rancangan ini ada dua kelompok yang dipilih secara acak. Kelompok pertama diberi perlakuan (kel. Ekperimen) dan kelopok kedua tidak diberi perlakuan (kel. Kontrol). Observasi atau pengkukuran dilakukan untuk kedua kelompok baik sebelum maupun sesudah pemberian perlakuan. Desain ini dapat digambarkan berikut ini.

SUBJECT              PRE       TREATMENT      POST
EXPERIMENTAL     0                  X                    0
CONTTROL            0                   -                    0

(3) Desain Solomon
Desain yang merupakan penggabungan dari desain 1) dan desain 2) disebut desain Solomon atau Randomized Solomon Four-Group Design. Ada empat kelompok yang dilibatkan dalam penelitian ini : dua kelompok kontrol dan dua kelompok eksperimen. Pada satu pasangan kelompok eskperimen dan kontrol diawali dengan pra-tes, sedangkan pada pasangan yang lain tidak. Gambar dari desain Solomon adalah sebagai berikut.

SUBJECT                 PRE       TREATMENT          POST
EXPERIMENTAL1     -                  X                         0
CONTTROL1             -                  -                          0
EXPERIMENTAL2     0                 X                         0
CONTTROL2            0                  -                          0

Referensi
Suryabrata, Sumadi. 2000. Metodologi Penelitian. Jakarta : PT Raja Grafindo Persada.

Fraenkel, Jack R. and Norman E. Wallen. 2008. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Demikianlah pembahasan kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amin.

Types of Action Research

            Types of Action Research

Written by Ari Julianto

There are different types of action research that depend upon the participants involved. A plan of research can involve a single teacher investigating an issue in his or her classroom, a group of teachers working on a common problem, or a team of teachers and others focusing on a school- or district-wide issue.

1. Individual teacher research
This type usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom. The teacher may be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management, instructional strategies, use of materials, or student learning. Teachers may have support of their supervisor or principal, an instructor for a course they are taking, or parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes is evident in his or her classroom and one that can be addressed on an individual basis. The research may then be such that the teacher collects data or may involve looking at student participation. One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it may not be shared with others unless the teacher chooses to present findings at a faculty meeting, make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit written material to a listserv, journal, or newsletter. It is possible for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no knowledge of the work of others.
Focus: Single classroom issue
Possible support needed: Coach/mentor; Access to technology; Assistance with data organization and analysis
Potential impact: Curriculum; Instruction; Assessment
Side effects: Practice informed by data; Information not always shared

2. Collaborative action research
This type may include as few as two teachers or a group of several teachers and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. These teachers may be supported by individuals outside of the school, such as a university or community partner. The LAB at Brown has just such a relationship with several teams.
Focus: Single classroom or several classrooms with common issue
Possible support needed:Substitute teachers; Release time; Close link with administrators
Potential impact: Curriculum; Instruction; Assessment; Policy
Side effects: Improved collegiality; Formation of partnerships

3. School-wide research
This type focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways.Or, the school may be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of staff from the school work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school could be to examine their state test scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then determine a plan of action to improve student performance.
Focus: School issue, problem, or area of collective interest
Possible support needed: School commitment; Leadership; Communication; External partners
Potential impact: Potential to impact school restructuring and change; Policy; Parent involvement; Evaluation of programs
Side effects: Improved collegiality;collaboration,and communication;Team building; Disagreements on process

4. District-wide research
This type is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the rewards can be great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or processes for decision-making. A district may choose to address a problem common to several schools or one of organizational management. Downsides are the documentation requirements (communication) to keep everyone in the loop, and the ability to keep the process in motion. Collecting data from all participants needs a commitment from staff to do their fair share and to meet agreed-upon deadlines for assignments. On the positive side, real school reform and change can take hold based on a common understanding through inquiry. The involvement of multiple constituent groups can lend energy to the process and create an environment of genuine stakeholders.
Focus: District issue; Organizational structures
Possible support needed: District commitment; Facilitator; Recorder; Communication; External partners
Potential impact: Allocation of resources; Professional development activities; Organizational structures; Policy
Side effects: Improved collegiality, collaboration,and communication; Team building; Disagreements on process;Shared vision.

(Taken from various sources)
Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.

Penelitian Pengembangan/Development Research (2)

    Penelitian Pengembangan/Development Research 
                                              (2)
                                                  Written by Ari Julianto



B. Ciri Utama Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Borg and Gall (1983) menjelaskan empat ciri utama dalampenelitian dan pengembangan, yaitu:
1. Studying research findings pertinent to the product to be develop,
2. Developing the product base on this findings.
3. Field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually,
4. Revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field-testing stage.

Dari empat ciri utama R & D tersebut, memberikan gambaran bahwa ciri utama R & D adalah adanya langkah-langkah penelitian awal tekait dengan produk yang akan dikembangkan. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian tersebut kemudian produk pendidikan dirancang dan dikembangkan untuk kemudian diuji dan diperbaiki/direvisi.

C.Komponen Utama Penelitian Pengembangan (DR)
Menurut Tim Puslitjaknov (2008), metode penelitian pengembangan memuat 3 komponen utama yaitu:
(1) Model pengembangan,
(2) Prosedur pengembangan,dan
(3) Uji coba produk.

D.Langkah-Langkah Penelitian dan Pengembangan (R & D)
Ada beberapa model penelitian pengembangan dalam bidang pendidikan. Disini hanya dikemukakan model Sugiyono dan model Borg and Gall.

1. Model Sugiyono
Menurut Sugiyono (2011), langkah-langkah penelitian dan pengembangan ada sepuluh langkah antara lain
(1) Potensi dan masalah,
(2) Pengumpulan data,
(3) Desain produk,
(4) Validasi desain,
(5) Revisi desain,
(6) Ujicoba produk,
(7) Revisi produk,
(8) Ujicoba pemakaian,
(9) Revisi produk, dan
(10) Produksi missal.

2. Model Borg and Gall
Menurut Borg dan Gall (1989), pendekatan R & D dalam pendidikan meliputi sepuluh langkah.
1. Research and Information Collecting,
2. Planning,
3. Develop Preliminary of Product
4. Preliminary Field Testing,
5. Main Product Revision,
6. Main Field Test,
7. Operational Product Revision,
8. Operational Field Testing,
9. Final Product Revision,
10. Dissemination and Implementation.

Demikianlah pembahasan kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.

Referensi
Borg, Walter R., & Gall, M.D. 1983. Educational research: An introduction. New York & London: Longman.

Sugiyono. (2011). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R & D. Bandung: Alfabeta.

Tim Puslitjaknov. 2008. Metode Penelitian Pengembangan. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional

Penelitian Pengembangan/Development Research (1)

    Penelitian Pengembangan/Development Research 
                                                     (1)
                                                             Written by Ari Julianto



A.Definisi Penelitian Pengembangan
Pada awalnya, metode penelitian dan pengembangan atau research and development (R & D) mulai diterapkan pada dunia industri. Sedangkan dalam bidang sosial dan pendidikan, peranan research and development masih sangat kecil dan kurang dari 1% dari biaya pendidikan secara keseluruhan. Hal ini dianggap sebagai salah satu alasan utama mengapa kemajuan dalam bidang pendidikan agak tertinggal jika dibandingkan dengan bidang lain.

Seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Borg and Gall (1983), Unfortunately, R & D still plays a minor role in education. Less than one percent of education expenditures are for this purpose. This is probably one of the main reasons why progress in education has logged for behind progress in other field.
Penelitian  dan pengembangan (R & D) adalah proses yang digunakan untuk mengembangkan dan memvalidasi produk pendidikan. Langkah-langkah dari proses ini biasanya disebut sebagai siklus R & D, yang terdiri dari mempelajari temuan penelitian yang berkaitan dengan produk yang akan dikembangkan, mengembangkan produk berdasarkan temuan ini, bidang pengujian dalam pengaturan di mana ia akan digunakan akhirnya , dan merevisinya untuk memperbaiki kekurangan yang ditemukan dalam tahap mengajukan pengujian.

Dalam program yang lebih ketat dari R & D, siklus ini diulang sampai bidang-data uji menunjukkan bahwa produk tersebut memenuhi tujuan perilaku didefinisikan Seels dan Richey (1994) mendefinisikan penelitian pengembangan sebagai suatu pengkajian sistematik terhadap pendesainan, pengembangan dan evaluasi program, proses dan produk pembelajaran yang harus memenuhi kriteria validitas, kepraktisan, dan efektifitas.

Dalam praktiknya, ada beberapa versi penelitian dan pengembangan sesuai dengan para ahli masing-masing. Selain metode penelitian dan pengembangan atau Research and Development (R & D), dikenal juga metode penelitian pengembangan atau Development Research (DR) yang hampir sama tetapi ada perbedaan. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan pengetahuan yang memadai tentang kedua jenis metode penelitian tersebut agar dapat melaksanakan penelitian dengan baik.

Akker (1999) mendeskripsikan penelitian pengembangan berdasarkan dua tujuan yakni Pengembangan prototipe produk Perumusan saran-saran metodologis untuk pendesainan dan evaluasi prototipe produk tersebut. Sedangkan Richey dan Nelson (2004) membedakan penelitian pengembangan atas dua tipe sebagai berikut.

1. Difokuskan pada pendesainan dan evaluasi atas produk atau program tertentu dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan gambaran tentang proses pengembangan serta mempelajari kondisi yang mendukung bagi implementasi program tersebut.
2. Dipusatkan pada pengkajian terhadap program pengembangan yang dilakukan sebelumnya. Tujuan tipe kedua ini adalah untuk memperoleh gambaran tentang prosedur pendesainan dan evaluasi yang efektif.

Berdasarkan pendapat-pendapat diatas, maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa penelitian pengembangan adalah suatu proses yang digunakan untuk mengembangkan dan memvalidasi produk-produk yang digunakan dalam pendidikan. Produk yang dihasilkan antara lain: bahan pelatihan untuk guru, materi belajar, media, soal, dan sistem pengelolaan dalam pembelajaran.

Demikianlah pembahasan kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.

Referensi
Borg, Walter R., & Gall, M.D. 1983. Educational research: An Introduction. New York & London: Longman.

Richey, R.C., Klein, J., & Nelson, W. 2004. Developmental research: Studies of instructional design and development. In D. Jonassen (Ed.) Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Seels, B.B., & Richey, R.C. 1994. Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.

van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. In J. van den Akker, R. Branch, K. Gustafson, N. Nieveen, & T. Plomp (Eds.), Design approaches and tools in education and training. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Tim Puslitjaknov. 2008. Metode Penelitian Pengembangan. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional