Language Learning Strategies for Speaking by Ari Julianto
I. Groups of Strategies: Direct Strategies
1. Types of Learning Strategies: Memory Strategies
1.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Creating mental linkages (Placing new words into a context)
b. Applying images and sounds (Representing sounds)
c. Reviewing well (Structured reviewing)
d. Employing action (Using memory strategies for retrieval is memory
strategies under using mechanical techniques)
2. Types of Learning Strategies: Cognitive Strategies
2.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Practicing (repetition, formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining, practicing naturalistically)
b. Receiving and sending messages (Using resources for receiving and sending messages)
c. Analyzing and reasoning (Reasoning deductively, translating, transferring)
3. Types of Learning Strategies:Compensation Strategies
3.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Switching to the mother tongue (using the mother tongue for an expression without translating it)
b. Getting help (asking someone for help in a conversation by hesitating or explicitly asking for the missing expression)
c. Using mime or gesture
d. Avoiding communication partially or totally
e. Selecting the topic
f. Adjusting or approximating the message
g. Coining words
h. Using a circumlocution or synonym
II. Groups of Strategies: Indirect Strategies
1. Types of Learning Strategies: Metacognitive Strategies
1.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Centering the learning (overviewing and linking already known material, attention involves directed attention and selected attention, delaying speech production to focus listening)
b. Arranging and planning the learning (Finding out about language learning, Organizing, Setting goals and objectives, Identifying the purpose of a language task, Planning for a language task, Seeking practice opportunity)
c. Evaluating the learning (self-monitoring, self-evaluating)
2. Types of Learning Strategies:Affective Strategies
2.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Lowering your anxiety
b. Encouraging yourself
c. Taking your emotional temperature
d. Rewarding oneself for good performance
e. Using deep breathing or positive self-talk
3. Types of Learning Strategies: Social Strategies
3.1 Learning Strategies for Speaking:
a. Asking questions to get verification
b. Asking for clarification
c. Asking for help in doing a language task
d. Cooperating with others, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner
e. Empathizing with others, exploring cultural and social norms
These strategies can be specified as follows:
1) Memory strategies for remembering and retrieving new information.
2) Cognitive strategies for understanding and producing the language.
3) Compensation strategies for using the language despite lack of knowledge.
4) Metacognitive strategies for coordinating the learning process.
5) Affective strategies for regulating emotions.
6) Social strategies for learning with others (Oxford, 1990, p. 14-15).
Furthermore, Nakatani (2006) groups speaking strategies into seven different types which are described as follows:
• Strategy type 1:
Fluency-oriented strategy; this strategy is seen when students pay attention to aspects like rhythm, intonation, pronunciation and speech clarity in order to improve listeners’ attention.
• Strategy type 2:
Negotiation for meaning while speaking; this strategy is related to the speaker’s attempts to negotiate with the listener. To keep and maintain their interaction and avoid breakdowns while communicating, they both modified the message by giving examples and repeating the speech to figure out what they really wanted to say.
• Strategy type 3:
Accuracy-oriented strategy; it is associated with the desire to speak English with some accuracy. Learners pay attention to the form of their speech and look for grammatical accuracy; therefore, they correct what they are saying by noticing their own mistakes.
• Strategy type 4:
Message reduction and alteration strategy; it is closely connected with the reduction and simplification of the message by using similar expressions in order to avoid breakdowns.
• Strategy type 5:
Non-verbal strategy while speaking; this strategy is directly linked to the use of body language. Learners use eye contact, gestures and facial expressions to achieve communication.
• Strategy type 6:
Message abandonment strategy; it is associated with the abandonment of the message in ESL communication. Learners have a tendency to give up their endeavor to communicate when they face difficulties carrying out their message.
• Strategy type 7:
Attempt to think in English strategy; this strategy is useful for learners who think in the second language during their speech. Learners tend to think in English and avoid thinking in their native language.
References:
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Nakatani, Y. (2006). Developing an oral communication strategy inventory. The Modern Language Journal, 90(2), 151-168.
