TIPS UMUM MEMBUAT SOAL
by Ben Clay in Is This A Trick Question? A Short Guide to Writing Effective Test Questions. Kansas State Department of Education.2001. pp3-4.
There are two general categories of test items:
1. Objective items which require students to select the correct response from several alternatives or to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question or complete a Statement.
2. Subjective or essay items which permit the student to organize and present an original answer.
Objective items include:
a. multiple choice
b. true-false
c. matching
d. completion
General Tips About Testing
1. Length of Test
In theory, the more items a test has, the more reliable it is. On a short test a few wrong answers can have a great effect on the overall results. On a long test, a few wrong answers will not influence the results as much. A long test does have drawbacks. If a test is too long, and particularly if students are doing the same kind of item over and over, they may get tired and not respond accurately or seriously. If a test needs to be lengthy, divide it into sections with different kinds of tasks, to maintain the student's interest.
2. Clear, Concise Instructions
It is necessary to give clear, concise instructions. It is useful to provide an example of a worked problem, which helps the students understand exactly what is necessary. What seems to be clear to the writer may be unclear to someone else.
3. Mix It Up!
It is often advantageous to mix types of items (multiple choice, true-false, essay) on a written exam or to mix types of exams (a performance component with a written component). Weaknesses connected with one kind of item or component or in students’ test taking skills will be minimized.
4. Test Early
It is helpful for instructors to test early in the term and consider discounting the first test if results are poor. Students often need a practice test to understand the format each instructor uses and anticipate the best way to prepare for and take particular tests.
5. Test Frequently
Frequent testing helps students to avoid getting behind, provides instructors with multiple sources of information to use in computing the final course grade (thus minimizing the effect of “bad days”), and gives students regular feedback. It is important to test various topics in proportion to the emphasis given in class. Students will expect this practice and will study with this expectation.
6. Check For Accuracy
Instructors should be cautious about using tests written by others. Often, items developed by a previous instructor, a textbook publisher, etc., can save a lot of time, but they should be checked for accuracy and appropriateness in the given course.
7. Proofread Exams
On written exams, it is important to proofread exams carefully and, when possible, have another person proofread them. Tiny mistakes, such as misnumbering the responses, can cause big problems later. Collation should also be checked carefully, since missing pages can cause a great deal of trouble.
8. One Wrong Answer
Generally, on either a written or performance test, it is wise to avoid having separate items or tasks depend upon answers or skills required in previous items or tasks. A student’s initial mistake will be perpetuated over the course of succeeding items or tasks, penalizing the student repeatedly for one error.
9. Special Considerations
It is important to anticipate special considerations that learning disabled students or non-native speakers may need. The instructor needs to anticipate special needs in advance and decide whether or not students will be allowed the use of dictionaries, extra time, separate testing sites, or other special conditions.
10. A Little Humor
Instructors have found that using a little humor or placing less difficult items or tasks at the beginning of an exam can help students with test anxiety to reduce their preliminary tension and thus provide a more accurate demonstration of their progress.
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Penilaian dengan Skala Holistik dan Analistik (untuk Writing dan Speaking)
Penilaian dengan Skala Holistik dan Analistik (untuk Writing dan Speaking)
by J. Charles Alderson et al in Language Test Construction and Evaluation,Cambridge University Press,1995, pp 108-110.
Subject marking tests are usually used for marking tests of writing or speaking. Examiner are required to make judgements which are more complicated than "right-wrong" decision. This scale may consists of number, letters or other labels (ex. "Excellent" or "Very good") which may accompanied by statements of the kind of behavior that each point on the scale refer to. These statements are called "descriptors".
There are basically two types of scales. Examiners may be asked to give a judgement on a candidate's performance as a whole, in which case they will use a holistic scale.
1. Holistic Scale
This type of scale is sometimes also called impression scale, especially when examiners are asked to make their judgements quickly.
18-20 Excellent Natural English with minimal errors and complete realisation of the task set.
16-17 Very good More than a collection Simple sentences, with good vocabulary and structures: Some non-basic errors,
12-1.5 Good Simple but accurate realisation of the task set with sufficient naturalness of English and not many errors.
8-11 Pass Reasonably correct but awkward and non-communicating or fair and natural treatment of subject, with some serious errors.
5-7 Weak Original vocabulary and grammar both inadequate to the subject.
0-4 Very poor Incoherent. Errors . show lack of bask knowledge of English
2. Analytic Scale Other examiners may be asked to judge several components of a performance separately (e.g. handwriting, paragraphing, grammar, choice of vocabulary). This type of marking requires an' analytic scale; where descriptors are given for each component. In analytic marking the candidate may receive higher rating on one component of the performanze than on another; it is up to the institution to decide whether or how to combine these different ratings to provide an overall mark.
Relevance and Adequacy of Content
0.The answer bears almost no relation to the task sets Totally inadequate answer.
1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition.
2. For the most part answers the task set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information.
3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set.
Compositional Organisation
0. No apparent organisation of content.
1. Very little organisation of content. Underlying structures not sufficiently apparent.
2. Some organisational skills in evidence but not adequately controlled.
3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organisational skills adequately controlled.
Cohesion
0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing is so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible.
1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication.
2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion though occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of the communication are not always effective.
3. Satisfactory use of cohesion resulting in effective communication.
Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication.
1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task . Perhaps frequent' lexical inappropiiacics and/or repetitions.
2. Some inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution.
3. Almost no inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies andlor circumlocution.
Grammar
0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate.
I. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies.
2. Some grammatical inaccuracies.
3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies.
Mechanical Accuracy I (Punctuation)0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation.
1. Low standard of accuracy of punctuation.
2. Some inaccuracies of punctuation.
3. Almost no inaccuracies of punctuation.
Mechanical Accuracy II (Spelling)0. Almost all spelling inaccurate.
I. Low standard of accuracy in spelling.
2. Some inaccuracies in spelling.
3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling.
by J. Charles Alderson et al in Language Test Construction and Evaluation,Cambridge University Press,1995, pp 108-110.
Subject marking tests are usually used for marking tests of writing or speaking. Examiner are required to make judgements which are more complicated than "right-wrong" decision. This scale may consists of number, letters or other labels (ex. "Excellent" or "Very good") which may accompanied by statements of the kind of behavior that each point on the scale refer to. These statements are called "descriptors".
There are basically two types of scales. Examiners may be asked to give a judgement on a candidate's performance as a whole, in which case they will use a holistic scale.
1. Holistic Scale
This type of scale is sometimes also called impression scale, especially when examiners are asked to make their judgements quickly.
18-20 Excellent Natural English with minimal errors and complete realisation of the task set.
16-17 Very good More than a collection Simple sentences, with good vocabulary and structures: Some non-basic errors,
12-1.5 Good Simple but accurate realisation of the task set with sufficient naturalness of English and not many errors.
8-11 Pass Reasonably correct but awkward and non-communicating or fair and natural treatment of subject, with some serious errors.
5-7 Weak Original vocabulary and grammar both inadequate to the subject.
0-4 Very poor Incoherent. Errors . show lack of bask knowledge of English
2. Analytic Scale Other examiners may be asked to judge several components of a performance separately (e.g. handwriting, paragraphing, grammar, choice of vocabulary). This type of marking requires an' analytic scale; where descriptors are given for each component. In analytic marking the candidate may receive higher rating on one component of the performanze than on another; it is up to the institution to decide whether or how to combine these different ratings to provide an overall mark.
Relevance and Adequacy of Content
0.The answer bears almost no relation to the task sets Totally inadequate answer.
1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition.
2. For the most part answers the task set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information.
3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set.
Compositional Organisation
0. No apparent organisation of content.
1. Very little organisation of content. Underlying structures not sufficiently apparent.
2. Some organisational skills in evidence but not adequately controlled.
3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organisational skills adequately controlled.
Cohesion
0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing is so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible.
1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication.
2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion though occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of the communication are not always effective.
3. Satisfactory use of cohesion resulting in effective communication.
Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication.
1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task . Perhaps frequent' lexical inappropiiacics and/or repetitions.
2. Some inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution.
3. Almost no inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies andlor circumlocution.
Grammar
0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate.
I. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies.
2. Some grammatical inaccuracies.
3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies.
Mechanical Accuracy I (Punctuation)0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation.
1. Low standard of accuracy of punctuation.
2. Some inaccuracies of punctuation.
3. Almost no inaccuracies of punctuation.
Mechanical Accuracy II (Spelling)0. Almost all spelling inaccurate.
I. Low standard of accuracy in spelling.
2. Some inaccuracies in spelling.
3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling.
How to Ask The Questions in Questionnaires and Interviews
How to Ask The Questions in Questionnaires and Interviews
Written by Bruce W. Tuckman in Conducting Educational. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. 1999. pp.238-239.
Certain forms of questions and certain response modes are commonly used in questionnaires and interviews. This section deals with question formats and the following section addresses response modes.1. Direct Versus Indirect Questions
The difference between direct and indirect questions lies in how obviously the questions solicit specific information. A direct question, for instance, might ask someone whether or not she likes her job. An indirect question might ask what she thinks of her job or selected aspects of it, supporting the researcher’s attempt to build inferences from patterns of responses. By asking questions without obvious purposes, the indirect approach is the more likely of the two to engender frank and open responses. It may take a greater number of questions fo collect information relevant to a single point, though.
2. Specific Versus Nonspecific Questions
A set of specific questions focuses on a particular object, person, or idea about which a researcher desires input regarding an attitude, belief, or concept; nonspecific questions probe more general areas.
For example, an interviewer can ask a factory worker (specifically) how he likes operating a lathe or (nonspecifically) how he likes operating machinery or working at manual tasks. An interviewer can ask a student (specifically) how much she likes a particular teacher versus (nonspecifically) how satisfied she feels with a particular class taught by the teacher. Specific questions,like direct ones, may cause respondents fo become cautious or guarded and to give less-than-honest answers.Nonspecific questions may lead circuitously to the desired information while provoking less alarm by the respondent.
3. Questions of Fact Versus Opinion
An interviewer may also choose between questions that ask respondents to provide facts and those that request opinions. A factual question might ask a respondent the type of car he or she owns or to specify marital status. An opinion question might ask about preference for Ford or Chevrolet models or reasons why (or why not) a respondent thinks that marriage contributes to a meaningful relationship between a man and a woman. Because the respondent may have a faulty memory or a conscious desire to create a particular impression, factual questions do not always elicit factual answers. Nor do opinion questions necessarily elicit honest opinions, because they are subject to distortions based on social desirability; that is, respondents may reply in ways that show themselves in the most socially acceptable light. With both fact and opinion questions, questionnaires and interviews may be structured and administered to minimize these sources of bias.
4. Questions Versus Statements
To gather input on many topics, an interviewer can either ask a respondent a direct question or provide a statement and ask for a response. To a question, a respondent provides an appropriate answer. For a statement, the respondent indicates whether he or she agrees or disagrees (or whether the statement is true or false). Applied in this manner, statements offer an alternative to questions as way of obtaining information. In fact, attitude measurement instruments more commonly present statements than ask questions.
Consider an example:
l Do you think that the school day should be lengthened?
YES NO
1. The school day should be shortened.
AGREE DISAGREE
These two formats are indistinguishable in their potentialfor eliciting honest responses. Usually, researchers choose between them on the basis of response mode, as discussed in the next section.
5. Predetermined Versus Response-Keyed Questions
Some questionnaires predetermine the number of questions to be answered; they require respondents to complete all items. Others are designed so that subsequent questions may or may not call for answers, depending upon responses to keyed questions. For example, a keyed item may ask a respondent if he is a college graduate. If the response is no, the respondent isinstructed to skip the next question. The decision whetheror not to answer the question is keyed to the response tothe previous question. Consider another example of responsekeying. An interviewer asks a school superintendent if herdistrict is using a nationally known curriculum. Twopossible questions are keyed to the response. If the superintendent says that the district is using the curriculum, the next question asks about its effectiveness;if the superintendent says the district is not using the curriculum, the next question asks why.
The Academic Essay Format
The Academic Essay Format
Written by Kathleen Muller Moore and Susie Lan Cassel in Techniques For College Writing The Thesis Statements and Beyond. Boaton: Wadsworth.2011.pp. 9-10.
The introduction has three primary jobs: to entice the reader to read the essay, to orient the reader to the subject of the paper, and to present the thesis statement. In this sense, the introduction sets the stage for the essay by preparing the reader for the argument that follows. The introductory paragraph (and in longer papers, there may be more than one paragraph for the introduction) can be visualized as a triangle where the wide side of the triangle represents the relatively broad opening of the paper, which narrows to a point that represents the thesis statement.
The thesis statement is the most important component of the essay because it has the job of giving meaning and purpose to the paper. Konowing the thesis statement is important because it sets before the reader the paper’s argument—the precise interpretation, evaluation, or position a paper will assert and develop. At its best, the thesis uses clear terms and offers an insightful assertion to draw the reader’s interest. The thesis statement never states the obvious or the generally accepted viewpoint. Instead, a thesis statement is always controversial; it tries to break new ground. Although the thesis statement is generally a single sentence in the essay, it has a very large job to do in that it directs the movement of the essay and gives the paper a sense of unity.
The body paragraphs make up the largest part of the paper and carry the evidence and commentary that show the thesis statement to be valid. Each paragraph has two jobs: to develop one important point in support of the thesis statement and to show how that point furthers the argument of the paper. Body paragraphs open with a topic sentence and include evidence, a discussion of the evidence, and a clear link between the paragraph’s subject matter and the thesis claim. Perhaps each paragraph’s most important duty is to explain carefully how the point developed in the paragraph helps to forge one of the logical links in the chain of the paper’s argument.
Finally, the conclusion of the paper mirrors the introduction in a way that provides closure, often bringing the discussion full circle. Here, the reader is reminded of the thesis of the paper and the context in which the paper’s discussion takes place. There are many good strategies for shaping conclusions, which often include stylistic flair, but one typical formula is to begin by restating the thesis statement using different words, and reviewing at a general level the evidence examined in the paper.
The Five 'Ws' for Research
The Five 'Ws' for Research
Written by
Catherine Dawson in Practical Research Methods A user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects. How To Books Ltd. Oxford. 2002. pp4-8.
When you start to think about your research project, a useful way of remembering the important questions to ask is to think of the five ‘Ws’:
- What?
- Why?
- Who?
- Where? and
- When?
Once you have thought about these five ‘Ws’ you can move on to think about how you are going to collect your data.
1. What?
What is your research? This question needs to be answered as specifically as possible. One of the hardest parts in the early stages is to be able to define your project, so much research fails because the researcher has been unable to do this. A useful tip is to sum up, in one sentence only, your research. If you are unable to do this, the chances are your research topic is too broad, ill thought out or too obscure.
2. Why?
Why do you want to do the research? What is its purpose? Okay, you might have been told to do some research by your tutor or by your boss, but there should be another reason why you have chosen your particular subject. It might be solely to do with the fact that you are interested in the topic. This is a good start as you need to be interested in your research if you are to keep up your enthusiasm and remain motivated. Or you might have identified a gap in the research literature–this is good as it shows you have carried out careful background research. Or perhaps you want to try to obtain funding for a particular service or enterprise and you need to do some research first to find out if there is demand for what you are proposing.
Whatever your reason, think very carefully about why you are doing the research as this will affect your topic, the way you conduct the research and the way in which you report the results. If you’re doing it for a university dissertation or project, does your proposed research provide the opportunity to reach the required intellectual standard? Will your research generate enough material to write a dissertation of the required length? Or will your research generate too much data that would be impossible to summarise into a report of the required length?
If you’re conducting research for funding purposes, have you found out whether your proposed funding body requires the information to be presented in a specific format? If so, you need to plan your research in a way which will meet that format.
3. Who?
Who will be your participants? (In this book, people who take part in research will be called participants or respondents, rather than ‘subjects’, which is a term that I have never liked.) At this stage of the research process, you needn’t worry too much about exactly how many participants will take part in your research as this will be covered later. However, you should think about the type of people with whom you will need to get in touch with and whether it will be possible for you to contact them. If you have to conduct your research within a particular time scale, there’s little point choosing a topic which would include people who are difficult or expensive to contact. Also, bear in mind that the Internet now provides opportunities for contacting people cheaply, especially if you’re a student with free internet access.
4. Where?
Where are you going to conduct your research? Thinking about this question in geographical terms will help you to narrow down your research topic. Also, you need to think about the resources in terms of budget and time that are available to you. If you’re a student who will not receive travel expenses or any other out of pocket expenses, choose a location close to home, college or university. If you’re a member of a community group on a limited budget, only work in areas within walking distance which will cut down on travel expenses.
Also, you need to think about where you’ll be carrying out your research in terms of venue. If you’re going to conduct interviews or focus groups, where will you hold them? Is there a room at your institution which would be free of charge, or are you going to conduct them in participants’ own homes? Would it be safe for you to do so? Would you be comfortable doing so? If you’ve answered ‘no’ to either of these last two questions, maybe you need to think again about your research topic. In 15 years I have encountered only one uncomfortable situation in a stranger’s home. It can happen and you must never put yourself in a dangerous situation. Think very carefully about whether your chosen topic and method might have an influence on personal safety.
5. When?
When are you going to do your research? Thinking about this question will help you to sort out whether the research project you have proposed is possible within your time scale. It will also help you to think more about your participants, when you need to contact them and whether they will be available at that time. For example, if you want to go into schools and observe classroom practice, you wouldn’t choose to do this research during the summer holiday. It might sound obvious, but I have found some students present a well-written research proposal which, in practical terms, will not work because the participants will be unavailable during the proposed data collection stage.
Once you have thought about these five ‘Ws’, try to sum up your proposed project in one sentence. When you have done this, take it to several people, including your boss and/or tutor, and ask them if it makes sense. Do they understand what your research is about? If they don’t, ask them to explain their confusion, revise your statement and take it back to them.
Using to infinitive in Research Objectives
Using to infinitive in Research Objectives
Written by Norman Blaikie in Analyzing Quantitative Data From Description to Explanation. 2003. London: Sage Publication.
One way to approach a research problem is through a set of research objectives. Social research can pursue many objectives. It can explore, describe, understand, explain, predict, change, evaluate or assess aspects of social phenomena.
- To explore is to attempt to develop an initial rough description or, possibly, an understanding of some social phenomenon.
- To describe is to provide a detailed account or the precise measurement and reporting of the characteristics of some population, group or phenomenon, including establishing regularities.
- To explain is to establish the elements, factors or mechanisms that are responsible for producing the state of or regularities in a social phenomenon.
- To understand is to establish reasons for particular social action, the occurrence of an event or the course of a social episode, these reasons being derived from the ones given by social actors.
- To predict is to use some established understanding or explanation of a phenomenon to postulate certain outcomes under particular conditions.
- To change is to intervene in a social situation by manipulating some aspects of it, or by assisting the participants to do so, preferably on the basis of established understanding or explanation.
- To evaluate is to monitor social intervention programmes to assess whether they have achieved their desired outcomes, and to assist with problem solving and policy-making.
- To assess social impacts is to identify the likely social and cultural consequences of planned projects, technological change or policy actions on social structures, social processes and/or people.
The first five objectives are characteristic of basic research, while the last three are likely to be associated with applied research. Both types of social research deal with problems: basic research with theoretical problems, and applied research with social or practical problems.
Basic research is concerned with advancing fundamental knowledge about the social world, in particular with description and the development and testing of theories.
Applied research is concerned with practical outcomes, with trying to solve some practical problem, with helping practitioners accomplish tasks, and with the development and implementation of policy. Frequently, the results of applied research are required immediately, while basic research usually has a longer time frame.
I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
One way to approach a research problem is through a set of research objectives. Social research can pursue many objectives. It can explore, describe, understand, explain, predict, change, evaluate or assess aspects of social phenomena.
- To explore is to attempt to develop an initial rough description or, possibly, an understanding of some social phenomenon.
- To describe is to provide a detailed account or the precise measurement and reporting of the characteristics of some population, group or phenomenon, including establishing regularities.
- To explain is to establish the elements, factors or mechanisms that are responsible for producing the state of or regularities in a social phenomenon.
- To understand is to establish reasons for particular social action, the occurrence of an event or the course of a social episode, these reasons being derived from the ones given by social actors.
- To predict is to use some established understanding or explanation of a phenomenon to postulate certain outcomes under particular conditions.
- To change is to intervene in a social situation by manipulating some aspects of it, or by assisting the participants to do so, preferably on the basis of established understanding or explanation.
- To evaluate is to monitor social intervention programmes to assess whether they have achieved their desired outcomes, and to assist with problem solving and policy-making.
- To assess social impacts is to identify the likely social and cultural consequences of planned projects, technological change or policy actions on social structures, social processes and/or people.
The first five objectives are characteristic of basic research, while the last three are likely to be associated with applied research. Both types of social research deal with problems: basic research with theoretical problems, and applied research with social or practical problems.
Basic research is concerned with advancing fundamental knowledge about the social world, in particular with description and the development and testing of theories.
Applied research is concerned with practical outcomes, with trying to solve some practical problem, with helping practitioners accomplish tasks, and with the development and implementation of policy. Frequently, the results of applied research are required immediately, while basic research usually has a longer time frame.
I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
How Should I Structure My Skripsi/Thesis?
How Should I Structure My Skripsi/Thesis?Written by Adrian Wallwork in English for Writing Research Papers. 2011. New York. Springer.
To write a well-structured paper in good clear English you need to have a method.If you don’t have a good method you may waste a lot of time having to re-plan and re-write entire sections of your paper. Your answers for the following questions will decide the well-structured of your skripsi/thesis.
I. Title
Think about the following questions:
a. What have I found that will attract attention?
b. What is new, different and interesting about my findings?
c. What are the 3–5 key words that highlight what makes my research and my findings unique?
On the basis of your answers you should be able to formulate a title.
2. Abstract
An Abstract generally answers at least the first three of the following questions, and generally in the following order. You can use the answers to these questions to structure your Abstract.
a. Why did I carry out this project? Why am I writing this paper?
b. What did I do, and how?
c. What were my results? What was new compared to previous research?
d. What are the implications of my findings? What are my conclusions and/or recommendations?
However chemists, physicists, biologists etc. who are presenting some new instrumentation may want to focus not on what they found, but on what the benefits of their apparatus are and how well it performs.
To decide what to include it may help you to go through your paper and highlight what you consider to be the most important points in each section. The order in which you answer the questions above can make a very different impression on readers.
3.Introduction
An Introduction generally answers the following questions. You can use the answers to these questions to structure your Introduction.
a. What is the problem?
b. Are there any existing solutions (i.e. in the literature)?
c. Which solution is the best?
d. What is its main limitation? (i.e. What gap am I hoping to fill?)
e. What do I hope to achieve?
f. Have I achieved what I set out to do?
4.Review of the Literature
A Literature Review generally answers the following questions, and generally in the following order. You can use the answers to these questions to structure your Literature Review.
a. What are the seminal works on my topic? Do I need to mention these?
b. What progress has been made since these seminal works?
c. What are the most relevant recent works? What is the best order to mention these works?
d. What are the achievements and limitations of these recent works?
e. What gap do these limitations reveal?
f. How does my work intend to fill this gap?
5.Methods
The Methods section should answer most of the following questions, obviously depending on your discipline:
a What / Who did I study? What hypotheses was I testing?
b Where did I carry out this study and what characteristics did this location have?
c. How did I design my experiment / sampling and what assumptions did I make?
d. What variable was I measuring and why?
e. How did I handle / house / treat my materials / subjects? What kind of care / precautions
were taken?
f. What equipment did I use (plus modifications) and where did this equipment come from (vendor source)?
g. What protocol did I use for collecting my data?
h. How did I analyze the data? Statistical procedures? Mathematical equations? Software?
i. What probability did I use to decide significance?
j. What references to the literature could I give to save me having to describe something in
detail?
k. What difficulties did I encounter?
l. How does my methodology compare with previously reported methods, and what significant advances does it make?
You should provide enough quantitative information (concentration, temperature,weight, size, length, time, duration etc.) so that other researchers can replicate what you did. Describe everything in a logical order to enable readers to easily follow what you did. This will usually be chronological. It may also help the reader if you use subheadings to explain the various stages of the procedure, which you can then
use again (perhaps with modifications) in the Results.
Your experiments, sampling procedures, selection criteria etc. may have more than one step. It helps your readers if your description of each step follows the same logical order.
Ensure that you cover every step required. Because you are very familiar with your method, you may leave out key information either thinking that it is implicit (and thus not worth mentioning) or simply because you forget.
6.Results
The Results should answer the following questions.
a. What did I find?
b. What did I not find?
c. What did I find that I was not expecting to find? (e.g. that contradicts my hypotheses)
A typical structure is to follow the order you used for the protocols or procedures in your Methods. You then use figures and tables to sequence the answers to the above questions.
7.Discussion
The Discussion should answer the following questions, and possibly in the following order. You can thus use the answers to structure your Discussion. This gives you a relatively easy template to follow.
a. Do my data support what I set out to demonstrate at the beginning of the paper?
b. How do my findings compare with what others have found? How consistent are they?
c. What is my personal interpretation of my findings?
d. What other possible interpretations are there?
e. What are the limitations of my study? What other factors could have influenced my findings?
Have I reported everything that could make my findings invalid?
f. Do any of the interpretations reveal a possible flaw (i.e. defect, error) in my experiment?
g. Do my interpretations contribute some new understanding of the problem that I have investigated? In which case do they suggest a shortcoming in, or an advance on, the work of others?
h. What external validity do my findings have? How could my findings be generalized to other areas?
i. What possible implications or applications do my findings have? What support can I give for such implications?
j. What further research would be needed to explain the issues raised by my findings? Will I do this research myself or do I want to throw it open to the community?
Whatever your discipline you will need to answer all the questions above, with the possible exception of question 8 (your findings may only be very preliminary). Whether you answer questions 8–10 will depend on whether you have a separate Conclusions section, if so, the Conclusions may be a more appropriate place.
8. Conclusions
The Conclusions section is not just a summary. Don’t merely repeat what you said in the Abstract and Introduction. It is generally not more than one or two paragraphs long. A Conclusions section typically incorporates one or more of the following:
a. a very brief revisit of the most important findings pointing out how these advance your field from the present state of knowledge
b. a final judgment on the importance and significance those findings in term of their implications and impact, along with possible applications to other areas
c. an indication of the limitations of your study (though the Discussion may be a more appropriate place to do this)
d. suggestions for improvements (perhaps in relation to the limitations)
e. recommendations for future work (either for the author, and/or the community)
f. recommendations for policy changes
The order these items appear is likely to be the same as suggested above.
Penggunaan Inisial, Kode dan Nomor Urut untuk Responden
Penggunaan Inisial, Kode dan Nomor Urut untuk RespondenWritten by Ari Julianto
Sebagai seorang peneliti yang membutuhkan population dan sample sebagai objek penelitian, menjaga rahasia para responden adalah suatu hal yang wajib.
Kerahasiaan para responden khususnya jati diri mereka haruslah benar-benar dijaga. Hal ini dimaksudkan agar kelak para responden tidak menuntut si peneliti disebabkan jati diri mereka dipubliksikan di media tulis atau cetak. Biar bagaimanapun, nilai-nilai baik, buruk, rendah atau tinggi yang diperoleh dari para responden akan sangat menyinggung si responden jika dipublikasikan.
Berikut, berbagai cara untuk menyembunyikan nama responden. Mula-mula kita memperoleh nama-nama para responden seperti di bawah ini.
NO. NAMA L/P
1. Satria Wiguna L
2. Lisnawati P
3. Muhammad Abdul Mazid L
4. Rizky Putri Nanda P
5. Egie Pratama L
Maka, cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk menkonversi nama para responden adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Menggunakan Inisial
Nama para responden disingkat dengan menggunakan inisial yang tidak lebih dari tiga huruf. Perlu diperhatikan, inisial nama para responden jangan sampai ditemukan sama walaupun keduanya memiliki nama yang sama, misalnya nama Dedi Dermawan diinisialkan DD, jika ada nama yang sama bisa ditulis DED agar data responden tidak tumpang tindih.
Data diatas dapat dikonversikan berbentuk inisial menjadi
NO. INISIAL
1. SW
2. LIS
3. MAM
4. RPN
5. EP
dan seterusnya
Untuk jenis kelamin tergantung pada metode dan teknik penelitian. Jika perbedaan jenis kelamin memang dibutuhkan, maka wajib dimasukkan dalam tabel.
2. Menggunakan Kode
Selain penggunaan inisial, nama para responden bisa dikonversi dengan menggunakan kode tertentu melalui kombinasi huruf atau angka. Data diatas dapat dikonversikan berbentuk kode menjadi
NO. KODE
1. A1
2. A2
3. A3
4. A4
5. A5
dan seterusnya
Jika sampai pada kode A10 bisa diganti menjadi B1, B2, B3 dan seterusnya.
3. Menggunakan Nomor Urut
Biasanya nama para responden sudah tersusun rapi di tabel nama responden. Nama-nama lengkap mereka bisa kita peroleh dari Buku Absensi siswa, pegawai dan lain sebagainya. Nomor urut dari Buku Absensi mereka kita masukkan disebelah nomor urut. Jadi, data diatas dapat dikonversikan sebagai berikut:
NO. NOMOR URUT
1. 23
2. 5
3. 9
4. 3
5. 2
dan seterusnya
Jika responden bukan termasuk siswa atau pegawai, akan tetapi masyarakat awam, nama-nama mereka bisa dikonversi dengan membalikkan nomor urut dari bawah ke atas setelah kita susun nama-nama mereka. Misalnya terdapat 50 responden. Data pada responden nomor 50 ditempatkan pada nomor seperti berikut ini.
NO NO URUT
1. 50
2. 49
3. 48
4. 47
5. 46
dan seterusnya
Cara diatas merupakan teknik untuk menyembunyikan atau mnejaga rahasia data dan jati diri para respponden. Jika, Anda memiliki teknik yang lebih mudah dan praktis, pakailah teknik tersebut untuk mempermudah laporan hasil penelitian Anda.
Demikianlah pembahasan kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
Teknik Presentase Proposal Skripsi/ThesisWritten by Ari Julianto
Dalam sidang seminar porposal S1, presentase proposal meminta masukan dari para dosen yang hadir khususnya Dosen Pembimbing I dan II dan juga beberapa audiens atau rekan sejawat lainnya sebelum penelitian tersebut dilakukan.Ringkasnya, presentasi hasil penelitian atau seminar hasil penelitian merupakan bentuk penyampaian hasil penelitian secara verbal atau audio visual dengan tujuan untuk meminta masukan agar hasil penelitian tersebut dapat lebih sempurna.
Teknik presentasi merupakan keahlian yang harus dimiliki oleh seorang peneliti atau mahasiswa. Dalam postingan kali ini saya mencoba membantu para mahasiswa untuk mempersiapkan diri sebelum penyajian presentasee proposal di seminar. Menyajikan presentasi proposal tidak jauh berbeda dengan menyampaikan pendapat di muka umum atau dalam kata lain, kita menguasai salah satu teknik komunikasi massa.
1. Tahap Persiapan
Dalam tahap persiapan, ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan, antara lain:
a. Persiapkan Mental
Berbicara di muka umum memerlukan kesiapan mental tersendiri. Rasa gugup bisa membuyarkan konnsentrasi. Perbanyaklah latihan menyampaikan pendapat di muka umum baik di kelas, di rumah atau di depan teman-teman.
b. Miliki Fisik yang Sehat
Menjaga kesehatan fisik merupakan keharusan sebelum presentase. Fisik yang sehat akan membuat pembicara dapat berkonsentrasi lebih baik saat presentasi maupun menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang diajukan.
c. Mengetahui Lokasi Presentasi
Pengaturan tata letak ruangan pun perlu diketahui. Di mana tempat pembicara, podium, duduk, atau berdiri, apakah ada moderator, dan bagaimana posisi audiens.
d. Periksa Peralatan dan Fasilitas
cara penggunaan fasilitas yang sudah disediakan perlu dipelajari agar bisa digunakan optimal dan tidak membuang waktu mempelajarinya terlebih dahulu saat presentasi telah berlangsung.
e. Mengetahui Tujuan Presentasi
Mengetahui tujuan presentasi dan siapa audiens kita akan membuat presentasi lebih mengarah tepat sasaran. Presentasi hasil penelitian merupakan presentasi informatif yakni untuk memberikan informasi kepada orang lain.
f. Mengetahui Siapa Peserta atau Audiens
Materi presentasi juga dibuat sesuai dengan tujuan presentasi dan audiens kita. Presentasi bukan hanya untuk menunjukkan apa yang telah kita lakukan tetapi bagaimana apa yang telah kita lakukan ini mendapat masukan dari audiens dan bermanfaat untuk mereka.
g. Persiapkan Materi dengan Cermat
Materi presentasi juga dibuat sesuai dengan tujuan presentasi dan audiens kita. Presentasi bukan hanya untuk menunjukkan apa yang telah kita lakukan tetapi bagaimana apa yang telah kita lakukan ini mendapat masukan dari audiens dan bermanfaat untuk mereka. Dalam mempersiapkan materi ini, gunakan media-media yang membuat presentasi ini menjadi menarik. Microsoft Power Point sudah biasa digunakan untuk membuat materi presentasi yang menarik.
h. Fokuskan Slide Presentasi
Mengingat waktu presentasi yang terbatas, umumnya jumlah slide yang dapat ditayangkan dalam waktu 15 hingga 20 menit adalah sekitar 7 slide. Slide yang baik justru tidak akan membuat penyaji membaca isi slide tersebut tetapi justru akan membuat audiens tertarik dan terfokus perhatiannya pada isi slide tersebut. Pilihlah warna slide yang sejuk dan tidak menyakitkan mata. Jika backgroundnya hitam, alangkah lebih baiknya tulisan dalam slide bewarna cerah seperti putih atau keemasan dan sebaliknya.
II. Tahap Pelaksanaan
Setelah memahami dan mempersiapkan tahap pertama, kemudian tibalah pada tahap kedua yakni pelaksanaan presentase. Prosesnya adalah sebagai berikut.
1. Dalam posisi berdiri tegak dan menatap ke seluruh audiens termasuk pada dosen,
2. Posisi tangan kiri memegang mic (jika dipergunakan) dan posisi tangan kanan untuk scroll down-up mouse tampilan Power Point,
3. Mulailah mengucapkan 'basmalah' (bagi yang Muslim),
4. Dilanjutkan dengan mengucapkan 'salam' (Assalamualaikum Wr Wb bagi Muslim atau Good Morning/afternoon bagi non Muslim),
5. Perkenalkan diri Anda: "First of all, allow me to introduce myself. My name is...."
6. Dilanjutkan dengan menyebutkan judul proposal Anda: "The title of my thesis proposal is...."
7. Dilanjutkan dengan memasuki Chapter I Introduction: "I would like to begin my presentation with Chapter I Introduction..."
8. Dalam tahap ini, alangkah lebih baiknya mata Anda terfokus pada layar tampilan,
9. Setelah selesai Chapter I Introduction kemudian dilanjutkan ke Chapter II Review of Literature: "Then, we go to the next chapter that is Chapter II Review of Literature..."
10. Mengingat sub chapter dalam Review of Literature banyak yang harus ditampilkan alangkah lebih baik dibuatkan outline dengan sedikit penjelasan,
11. Dilanjutkan dengan pembahasan Chapter III Method of Research (tergantung kenis risetnya) : "Finally, we go to the last chapter that is Method of Research..."
12. Mengingat waktu yang diberikan untuk presentase sangat terbatas, pada umumnya hanya Chapter I, II dan III saja yang disajikan,namun itu tergantung dari peraturan dan kebijakan fakultas masing-masing,
13. Mengakhiri presentase: "That's all the presentation of my thesis proposal. For your attention I would like to say thank you very much..."
14. Diakhiri dengan mengucapkan 'salam' (Assalamualaikum Wr Wb bagi Muslim).
Apa yang saya paparkan diatas merupakan satu contoh saja. Anda bisa meggunakan frase-frase yang lebih baik dan lebih tepat selain dari itu.
Untuk melatih dan memperdalam teknik presentase yang baik, berikut ini saya memberikan link download teknik presentase. Meski sebenarnya ditujukan untuk work presentase, tidak salahnya kita belajar dari buku ini.
- Bukunya dalam format PDF dapat didownload (8MB) DISINI
- Audionya (File 1) dalam format rar (21MB) dapat didownload DISINI
- Audionya (File 2) dalam format rar (21MB) dapat didownload DISINI
If you find the link error, you may contact me personally via email: mr.ari69@gmail.com
(Jika link ini tidak berlaku, silakan hubungi saya via email: mr.ari69@gmail.com)
Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini, semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
Seputar Pertanyaan di Seminar/Sidang
Seputar Pertanyaan di Seminar/SidangWritten by Ari Julianto
Sejumlah mahasiswa melalui email di blog ini pernah meminta saya untuk membuat daftar pertanyaan yang kira-kira akan diajukan oleh dosen pembimbing atau dosen penguji ketika seminar atau sidang berlangsung. Saya menekankan kepada para mahasiswa tersebut bahwa setiap dosen memiliki keunikkan tersendiri.
Pertanyaan yang mereka ajukan kadangkala di luar dari prediksi mahasiswa. Misalnya saja saya pribadi. Saya akan menanyakan kepada mahasiswa tersebut jika terdapat keganjilan dalam proposal skripsi/thesis mereka.
Setahu saya pada dasarnya pertanyaan seputar proposal skripsi/thesis untuk semua jurusan memiliki persamaan. Dalam posting kali ini, Saya mencoba membuat pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang paling sering muncul di sidang seminar proposal dan sidang skripsi. Saya membagi pertanyaan tersebut menjadi tiga bagian,yakni I. Seminar Proposal, II. Sidang Skripsi/Thesis dan III.Umum.
I. Seminar Proposal
1. Mengapa Anda memilih judul skripsi ini?
2. Apa jenis penelitian Anda?
3. Berapa lama Anda membutuhkan waktu untuk meneliti ini?
4. Apa permasalahan skripsi Anda?
5. Berapa populasi dan sample yang dibutuhkan?
6. Apa jenis pendekatan penelitian Anda?
7. Apa keuntungan orang lain membaca skripsi Anda?
8. Dimana lokasi penelitian Anda?
9. Mengapa Anda memilih lokasi tersebut?
10. Dari mana Anda mendapat ide untuk permasalahan Anda?
11. Teori siapa yang akan Anda pakai untuk penelitian Anda?
12. Apa instrumen penelitian Anda?
13. Bagaimana prosedur pengumpulan datanya?
14. Bagaimana prosedur menganalisis datanya?
15. Apa sumber data Anda (untuk kualitatif)
16. Apa hipotesis yang Anda ajukan (jika ada)
17. Apakah ada peneliti lain yang pernah meneliti hal yang sama Anda teliti?
18. Apakah skripsi Anda menggunakan data statistik?
19. Mengapa Anda memilih tingkat sekolah ini (SD,SMP,SMA dsb)
20. Berapa variable dalam penelitian Anda? Apa saja?
21.Mengapa Anda memilih skill ini (writing, speaking, reading, listening)?
Dan sejumlah pertanyaan lainnya yang tidak bisa diprediksi.
II Sidang Skripsi/Thesis
1. Apa saja hasil temuan dari penelitian Anda?
2. Apa hambatan Anda dalam melakukan penelitian ini?
3. Apakah Anda mengumpulkan data sesuai dengan prosedur?
4. Apakah Anda menganalisis data sesuai dengan prosedur?
5. Apa metode penelitian Anda?
6. Apa teknik penelitian Anda?
7. Apa pendekatan penelitian Anda?
8. Apa kesimpulan dari penelitian Anda?
9. Apakah kesimpulan tersebut sudah menjawab permasalahan skripsi Anda?
10. Butuh waktu berapa lama Anda menyiapkan skripsi/thesis ini?
11. Apakah Anda sudah benar-benar mengikuti arahan dosen pembimbing Anda?
12.Apa hasil signifikan dari penelitian Anda?
13. Apa manfaat bagi mahasiswa dari hasil penelitian Anda ini?
14. Apa manfaat bagi pembaca umum dari hasil penelitian Anda ini?
15. Jika Anda menggunakan instrument penelitian, bagaimana Anda mengukur validitasnya?
16. Apakah penelitian Anda benar-benar didukung teori?
17. Ada berapa variable penelitian Anda? Sebutkan!
18. Mengapa Anda memilih subjek ini sebagai penelitian Anda?
19. Apa yang Anda bisa tarik kesimpulan dari hasil temuan riset Anda?
Dan sejumlah pertanyaan lainnya yang tidak bisa diduga.
III. Umum
Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud dengan
1. riset?
2. data?
3. variable?
4. populasi?
5. sample?
6. riset kualitatif?
7. riset kuantitatif?
8. deskriptif kualitatif?
9. validitas (validity)?
10. hipotesis (hypothesis)?
Dan semua yang berhubungan dengan materi riset
Namun, yang paling sering dikritik para dosen pembimbing dan dosen penguji adalah:
1. Punctuation (tanda baca)
2. Language and style (bahasa dan gaya tulisan)
3. Grammar
4. structure and layout
5. spelling, dan
6. word choice
Demikianlah pembahasan dari saya kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
Tips Menganalisis Sebuah Cerpen/Novel
Tips Menganalisis Sebuah Cerpen/Novel
Written by Ari Julianto
Mahasiswa FKIP Bahasa Inggris pada suatu pilihan akan memilih kesusasteraan Bahasa Inggris (English Literature) sebagai topik skripsi/thesis mereka. Persoalan apakah mahasiswa FKIP 'dilarang' untuk memilih topik ini (English Literature) atau tidak.
Menganalisis suatu karya sastra Bahasa Inggris terus terang saja tidak semudah menganalisis students' errors, achievement, ability, mastery, test result dan sebagainya dimana data jawaban siswa sudah tersedia dan tinggal dianalisis. Untuk karya sastra, kita dituntut untuk memahami betul isi karya sastra tersebut bahkan mengenali si penulisnya (the author). Berikut saya mencoba untuk menyajikan tips menganalisis sebuah cerpen/novel.
1. Usahakan Anda memiliki cerpen/novel asli berbahasa Inggris(book/ebook pdf),
2. Lebih sangat membantu jika Anda memiliki terjemahan cerpen/novel berbahasa Indonesia (book/ebook pdf) sebab hal itu akan sangat memudahkan Anda memahami isinya,
3.Bacalah dengan seksama mulai dari Bab awal hingga akhir. Bawalah diri Anda terhanyut dalam alur ceritanya seakan-akan Anda terlibat dalam cerita tersebut,
4. Kenalilah jenis atau genre novelnya (type/genre of novel) apakah Picaresque, Panoramic, Social, Regional, Psychological, Mysteries, Fantasy, Westerns, Thrillers, Historical dan sebagainya.
5. Dari beberapa literature yang saya baca, ada beragam teori mengenail kinds/genres of novel. Satu sama lain memberikan point of view yang berbeda. Pilihlah yang menurut Anda tepat untuk dijadikan rujukan,
6. Anda harus ingat bahwa short story/novel, drama dan poetry/poem adalah bagian dari kinds of literature,
7. Ingatlah bahwa dalam kerangka cerpen/novel terdapat elements antara lain Plot, Characterization, Characters, Point of view, Setting, Style, Theme, Tone dan sebagainya.
8. Tulislah masing-masing element tersebut dari cerpen/novel yang Anda analisis. Jika Anda mengalami kesulitan, browsing di Mr. Google carilah sejumlah ulasan tentang short story/novel tersebut. Itu akan sangat membantu Anda,
9. Tentukanlah siapa Main Character (tokoh utama) dan Supporting Characters (tokoh pendukung),
10. Kemudian buatlah daftar siapa-siapa saja yang dikategorikan sebagai protagonist, dan yang antagonists,
11. Di dalam plot terdapat Exposition/Introduction, Complication/conflict, Climax/Crisis, Resolution. Tentukanlah di bagian mana cerita yang Anda kaji masuk dalam parts of the plot tersebut,
12. Kemudian, cobalah Anda membuat suatu ringkasan isi dari cerpen/novel tersebut,
13. Buatlah ide atau pesan apa yang terdapat di setiap dialog pada suatu moment. Sebab pesan atau ide dealam sebuah cerpen/novel bisa jadi ditemukan pada dialog,
14. Setelah Anda menguasai novel tersebut sebagai variable X, selanjutnya Anda mencari bahan untuk variable Y. Misalnya, Anda ingin menganalisa mental conflict, the role of..., the sadness, the effect of..., the causes of... dan sebagainya. Maka Anda usahakan mendapatkan teori yang lengkap dan solid untuk variable tersebut,
15.Susunlah outline apa-apa saja yang akan Anda kaji di skripsi Anda mulai dari CHAPTER I hingga CHAPTER V,
16. Pada variable Y yang dituangkan dalam CHAPTER II Review of Literature, jabarkanlah satu persatu bagiannya, misalnya seperti outline berikut ini
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Definition of Sadness
2.2 The Concept of Sadness
2.2.1 The Signs/symptoms of Sadness
2.2.2 The Stages of Sadness
2.3 Theory of Sadness
2.3.1 The Causes of Sadness
a. Loss
b. Changes
c. Disappointment
d. Relationship
2.3.2 The Effects of Sadness
a. Emotional Effect
b. Social Effect
c. Depression
17. Sebagai langkah terakhir, Anda analisis masing-masing outline di atas khususnya pada 2.3 Theory of sadness. Jika Anda memiliki cerpen/novel dalam format ebook pdf, carilah unsur kata yang memiliki makna yang sama. Misalnya sad = grief, sorrow, emotions, grieving, depression dan sebagainya. Cukup tekan control 'f' dari halaman pertama hingga akhir. Setelah itu, Anda copy and paste kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung kata-kata tersebut di lembaran catatan 'Analysis'.
Demikianlah pembahasan tips menganalisa cerpen/novel kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
Objectives of Review of Literature
Objectives of Review of Literature
Written by Yogesh Kumar Sing in Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic. New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
The review of literature serves the following purposes in conducting research work:
1. It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the
formulation of a new problem.
2. It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without
requiring further investigation. It avoids the replication.
3. It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher can formulate research hypothesis
on the basis of available studies.
4. It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the
solution of the problem.
5. It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results.
The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be
used as the subject for the findings of the study.
6. It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the area
investigated.
7. It contributes towards the accurate knowledge of the evidence or literature in one’s area of
activity is a good avenue towards making oneself. This knowledge is an asset ever afterwards,
whether one is employed in an institution of higher learning or a research organization.
Bruce W. Tuckman (1978) has enumerated the following purposes of the review:
1. Discovering important variable.
2. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done.
3. Synthesizing the available studies to have perspective.
4. Determining meanings, relevance of the study and relationship with the study and its deviation
from the available studies.
Edward L. Vockell (1983) has pointed out the following two purposes:
• The main purpose of this review is to put the hypothesis to be examined in the research
report into its proper context.
• Secondary purposes of this part of the report are to provide readers with guidelines regarding
where they can look to find more information and to establish the author’s credential by
letting readers know that the researcher is aware of what has been going on with regard to
the current and related topics.
Written by Yogesh Kumar Sing in Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic. New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
The review of literature serves the following purposes in conducting research work:
1. It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the
formulation of a new problem.
2. It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without
requiring further investigation. It avoids the replication.
3. It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher can formulate research hypothesis
on the basis of available studies.
4. It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the
solution of the problem.
5. It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results.
The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be
used as the subject for the findings of the study.
6. It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the area
investigated.
7. It contributes towards the accurate knowledge of the evidence or literature in one’s area of
activity is a good avenue towards making oneself. This knowledge is an asset ever afterwards,
whether one is employed in an institution of higher learning or a research organization.
Bruce W. Tuckman (1978) has enumerated the following purposes of the review:
1. Discovering important variable.
2. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done.
3. Synthesizing the available studies to have perspective.
4. Determining meanings, relevance of the study and relationship with the study and its deviation
from the available studies.
Edward L. Vockell (1983) has pointed out the following two purposes:
• The main purpose of this review is to put the hypothesis to be examined in the research
report into its proper context.
• Secondary purposes of this part of the report are to provide readers with guidelines regarding
where they can look to find more information and to establish the author’s credential by
letting readers know that the researcher is aware of what has been going on with regard to
the current and related topics.
Using Footnotes in A Skripsi/Thesis
Using Footnotes in A Skripsi/Thesis
Written by Ari Julianto
Different faculty sometimes uses footnotes (catatan kaki) in writing a skripsi or thesis. It is desirable to quote some authoritative views or statements from written works of others in the research report. It may be necessary from various purposes for example to review the related literature,to support to give the rationale for one’s viewpoint.
Each quotation must have a footnote or reference indicating the sources from which it is borrowed. All these sources and authority be acknowledged both for intellectual honesty and for validity of one’s research.
Footnotes serve a number of purposes. They enable the researcher to substantiate his presentation by quotations or citations of other authorities, to give credit to sources of material that he has reported and to provide the reader with specific sources that he may use to verify the authenticity and accuracy of material quoted. The citation or quoted statements are written in single-spaced whereas the text is written double-spaced.
The footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page” and are separated from the text by a three cms horizontal line drawn from the left margin. Footnotes are numbered consecutively within a chapter.
The recent approach is that references are given in the place of footnotes. The reference of quoted material is inserted in parentheses at the end of the sentence. For example, (4 : 72) indicates that the statement refers to the bibliography listing number 4, page 72. Another procedure is that all the references are placed on one page at the end of the chapter in the sequence of quoted statements.
Method of Writing Footnotes
Usually the footnotes are given at bottom of the page at the end of the text according to the number of quotations provided on it. The following examples illustrate the style of writing footnotes:
1. Single author
2. Two authors:
It may be noted from the examples of footnotes and bibliography that the author’s last name or surname is written first in bibliography while last name or surname is given in usual way or in the last.
Second difference between these two can be gathered regarding page-total number pages of the book are written in bibliography and specific page number of the book is recorded on the foot-notes where the quotation has been given in the book. In this way eleven types of bibliography have been illustrated in this chapter, with this difference eleven types of footnotes can also be written.
To avoid repetition and making economy of time and space some abbreviations are used in writing the footnotes references. Usually following three types of abbreviations are employed.Ibid–In consecutive reference to the same work the Latin abbreviation Ibid (Indicates same page as earlier footnote), Ibid p. 36 (same work, but a different page 36) is used. Qp. Ci.–When a reference to the same work is not used in consecutive but after some other references, the Latin abbreviation op. cit. (indicates the work already cited in the report).
The surname of the author and op. cit. is used. If the page number of the book is different, in this situation op. cit. and page number along the surname is used. The examples are as follows:
Chaube, op. cit ( the work cited).
Chaube, op. cit. page 48 (the work cited on page 48).
Loc. Ci. – When a second but non-consecutive reference follows, referring to the same work and same page, the Latin abbreviation Loc-cit (previously cited) may be used. The authors surname along Loc. cit must be included. An example is given below:
Chaturvedi, Loc. cit (previously cited on page 48).
(Taken from various sources)
Well, hopefully today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Written by Ari Julianto
Different faculty sometimes uses footnotes (catatan kaki) in writing a skripsi or thesis. It is desirable to quote some authoritative views or statements from written works of others in the research report. It may be necessary from various purposes for example to review the related literature,to support to give the rationale for one’s viewpoint.Each quotation must have a footnote or reference indicating the sources from which it is borrowed. All these sources and authority be acknowledged both for intellectual honesty and for validity of one’s research.
Footnotes serve a number of purposes. They enable the researcher to substantiate his presentation by quotations or citations of other authorities, to give credit to sources of material that he has reported and to provide the reader with specific sources that he may use to verify the authenticity and accuracy of material quoted. The citation or quoted statements are written in single-spaced whereas the text is written double-spaced.
The footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page” and are separated from the text by a three cms horizontal line drawn from the left margin. Footnotes are numbered consecutively within a chapter.
The recent approach is that references are given in the place of footnotes. The reference of quoted material is inserted in parentheses at the end of the sentence. For example, (4 : 72) indicates that the statement refers to the bibliography listing number 4, page 72. Another procedure is that all the references are placed on one page at the end of the chapter in the sequence of quoted statements.
Method of Writing Footnotes
Usually the footnotes are given at bottom of the page at the end of the text according to the number of quotations provided on it. The following examples illustrate the style of writing footnotes:
1. Single author
John W. Best. (1977), ‘Research in Education’ 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,Inc., Englewood Cliff, 84 p.
J.H. MC. Grath and D. Gene Wattson (1970), ‘Research Methods and Designs for Education’, Pennsylvania International Text-book Company, 124 p.
It may be noted from the examples of footnotes and bibliography that the author’s last name or surname is written first in bibliography while last name or surname is given in usual way or in the last.
Second difference between these two can be gathered regarding page-total number pages of the book are written in bibliography and specific page number of the book is recorded on the foot-notes where the quotation has been given in the book. In this way eleven types of bibliography have been illustrated in this chapter, with this difference eleven types of footnotes can also be written.
To avoid repetition and making economy of time and space some abbreviations are used in writing the footnotes references. Usually following three types of abbreviations are employed.Ibid–In consecutive reference to the same work the Latin abbreviation Ibid (Indicates same page as earlier footnote), Ibid p. 36 (same work, but a different page 36) is used. Qp. Ci.–When a reference to the same work is not used in consecutive but after some other references, the Latin abbreviation op. cit. (indicates the work already cited in the report).
The surname of the author and op. cit. is used. If the page number of the book is different, in this situation op. cit. and page number along the surname is used. The examples are as follows:
Chaube, op. cit ( the work cited).
Chaube, op. cit. page 48 (the work cited on page 48).
Loc. Ci. – When a second but non-consecutive reference follows, referring to the same work and same page, the Latin abbreviation Loc-cit (previously cited) may be used. The authors surname along Loc. cit must be included. An example is given below:
Chaturvedi, Loc. cit (previously cited on page 48).
(Taken from various sources)
Well, hopefully today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Research Design
Research Design
Written by Ari Julianto
Before starting a research, the investigator will look for problem, he will read books, journals, research reports and other related literature. Based on this, he will finalise the topic for research.
During this process, he will be in close contact with his guide. As soon as the topic is decided, first task is to decide about design. Research design is a blue print or structure with in which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
A design is general strategy for conducting a research study. The nature of the hypothesis, the variables involved, and the constraints of the ?real world? all contribute to the selection of design. A design regarding WHAT?, WHERE?, WHEN?, HOW MUCH?, by WHAT? means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute research design.
Thus, it can be said that research design is an outline of what the researcher will do from writing of objectives, hypotheses and its operational implications to find analysis of data. Research design should be able to convey following :
(a) What is the study about?
(b) Why is the study being made?
(c) Where will the study be carried out?
(d) What type of data is required?
(e) Where can the required data be found?
(f) What periods of time will the study include?
(g) What will be the sample design?
(h) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(i) How will the data be analysed?
(j) In what style will the report be prepared?
Depending upon the types of research the structure of design may vary. Suppose, one is conducting an experimental research, then identification of variables, control of variables, types of experimental design etc. be discussed properly. If someone is conducting qualitative research, then one should stress on understanding of setting, nature of data, holistic approach, selection of participants, inductive data analysis. Thus, according to nature and type of study the components of design will be decided.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain
(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied;and
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
(Taken from various sources)
Hopefully, today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Criteria of Good Research
Criteria of Good Research
Written by C.R. Kothari in Research Methodology, Methods and Technique. New Age International Publisher.Jaipur. 2004.
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Written by C.R. Kothari in Research Methodology, Methods and Technique. New Age International Publisher.Jaipur. 2004.
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
General & Specific Characteristics of Research
General & Specific Characteristics of Research
Written by Yogesh Kumar Singh in Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic, Mumbai: New Age International Publisher, 2006.
I. General
The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular
and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.
II. Specific
The following are the main characteristics of research
1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science
7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena
10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method
11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect
12. Research cannot be a mechanical process
Well, I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Written by Yogesh Kumar Singh in Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic, Mumbai: New Age International Publisher, 2006.
I. GeneralThe following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular
and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.
II. Specific
The following are the main characteristics of research
1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science
7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena
10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method
11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect
12. Research cannot be a mechanical process
Well, I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.
Penggunaan Tense dalam Skripsi/Thesis
Penggunaan Tense dalam Skripsi/ThesisWritten by Ari Julianto
Penggunaan tense dalam penulisan skripsi, thesis atau karya tulis ilmiah lainnya memang mempengaruhi interpretasi para pembaca teks Anda. Sebagaimana kita ketahui, past tense memberi kesan perspektif masa lalu dimana hal itu bisa membuat para pembaca kembali ke belakang. Sementara present tense sering digunakan untuk peristiwa secara umum.
Berikut ini saya mencoba menyampaikan deskrpsi ringkas penggunaan tense dalam penulisan skripsi/thesis atau karya tulis ilmiah lainnya. Tense dalam kata kerja yang Anda pilih memiliki peran penting bagi para pembaca dan ia bukan sekedar kerangka waktu (time frame).
Pada umumnya dalam suatu skripsi/thesis atau karya tulis ilmiah lainnya terdapat empat bentuk tenses yang sering dipakai antara lain:
1. The present tense
Ini digunakan untuk generalisasi (dalam pandangan, statement poin pokok) yang relevan secara umum. Juga melaporkan posisi seorang teoritis atau peneliti dalam melaporkan hasil penelitiannya.
2. The past tense
Ini digunakan untuk mengklaim non-generality literature masa lalu, yakni melaporkan atau mendeskripsikan isi, temuan atau kesimpulan riset terdahulu.
3. The present perfect
Ini digunakan untuk mengindikasikan adanya data khusus yang masih berkelanjutan, atau menyajikan suatu pandangan bentuk non-integral referencing (nama si penulis tidak muncul dalam teks kalimat, ia muncul hanya dalam parentheses).
4. The future tense
Ini sering digunakan di bagian methodology dalam sebuah proposal untuk menyatakan minat untuk melakukan sebuah penelitian.Jika ketika Anda mendeskripsikan apa yang muncul dalam tulisan, gunakanlah present tense bukan future sebab Anda sudah melakukan penelitian tersebut misalnya The sections below describe the process of …, bukan The sections below will describe the process of …
Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
What to Avoid in Writing A Thesis
What to Avoid in Writing A Thesis
Written by Ari Julianto
This time I would like to discuss what to avoid in writing thesis. Actually, this literature mostly taken from D. Lindsay, A Guide to Scientific Writing. Melbourne, Australia: Addison Wesley Longman Australia, 2nd ed., 1997.
Lindsay gives ten categories of cumbersome expressions that should be avoided in writing a scientific paper or thesis. These are summarized below.
1. Clusters of nouns.
When clustered together, all nouns except the last function as adjectives. Avoid expressions like “chemical healing uppression” and say instead,“suppression of healing by chemicals”, or “suppression of chemical healing”, or whatever else you intended to mean. Use prepositions to make your meaning clear.
2. Adjectival clauses.
Instead of “an innovation based return on investment culture”,say “a culture of innovation based on return-on-investment” or whatever you actually meant to say. Again, use prepositions to make your meaning clear, even if this construction is longer.
3. Subordinate clauses at the beginning.
This style puts the unimportant bits first and the important ones later. It may be good electronics to do so (LSB14 first), but itis bad English. Avoid beginning sentences with constructions like “Despite the fact that . . . ”, “Notwithstanding the fact that . . . ”, etc. Compare these two versions: Thus, although there were too few plots15 to show all of the interactions which we sought [subordinate clause, apologetic], under the conditions of the experiment [subordinate phrase, conditional], copper and zinc acted additively.Thus, copper and zinc acted additively under the conditions of our experiment, although there were . . . The second sentence certainly reads better. It is also a good example of putting the important information in the topic position, which is at the beginning.
4. Nouns instead of the verbs from which they are derived. Avoid writing “Recording of pulse rates was made”; instead write, “Pulse rates were recorded”. We have improved the original sentence in three ways by doing this. We have:
(a) replaced the original dummy verb “made” with the genuine verb “recorded”;
(b) shortened the sentence; and
(c) sharpened the impact.
5. Use of filler verbs.
Do not write “We conducted a study of group III-V compounds”;instead say, “We studied group III-V compounds”. The second sentence has five words; the first, eight. Again, a dummy verb has been replaced with a genuine verb and the sentence has been shortened and strengthened. Examples of dummyverb constructions to be avoided are “to be present”, “to occur”, “to perform”, “to obtain”, etc.
6. Use of passive voice rather than active voice.
Passive voice is appropriate when the doer of an action is unknown or is irrelevant. Otherwise, passive voice lengthensand weakens the sentence, whereas active voice is direct, succinct and more forceful. Compare “Patients were observed by two people for signs of abnormal behaviour” with “Two people observed the patients . . . ”
7. Use of imprecise words.
Do not use words like “quite”, “some”, “considerable”, “a great deal”, etc. in scientific writing. It is imprecise and unhelpful to the reader.Be quantitative: you are writing an engineering thesis. Sometimes, you may wish to avoid numerical precision for some compelling reason. If you want to avoid writing “Fifty-two percent of the images were correctly classified”, do not say “The majority of the images were correctly classified”, but rather “Slightly over half the images were correctly classified”.
8. Use of compound prepositions.
Debaters and politicians use expressions like “in the case of”, “in respect of”, etc., usually to gain time to think of a proper answer during a debate or a press conference. Such expressions dilute the force of the simple, direct statement: they have no place in your thesis.
9. Multiple negatives. A double negative, when used carefully, has impact or conveys just the right shade of meaning. Multiple negatives do not. They serve only to confuse and should be avoided. What does “not unreasonably inefficient” really mean? Anytime you cause your reader to backtrack or pause for mental breath to take in meaning, you have done yourself and your reader a disservice.
10. Unfamiliar abbreviations and symbols.
Stick to SI units and prefixes. If you have to introduce a new unit called a flip make sure that you define it somewhere, introduce an abbreviation consistent with the SI system, use SI prefixes, and stick with your nomenclature all through.
Metode Penulisan Judul Skripsi FKIP Bhs Inggris
Metode Penulisan Judul Skripsi FKIP Bhs InggrisWritten by Ari Julianto
Penulisan judul sebuah skripsi sering diabaikan oleh mahasiswa/i sehingga berakibat fatal. Jika judul yang diajukan sudah masuk berkas di bagian administrasi atau biro bersangkutan, tentu sulit untuk merubahnya. Adalah tugas Sekretaris Jurusan dan Ketua Jurusan Prodi serta para dosen pembimbing untuk memeriksa hati-hati judul yang sudah disetujui tersebut.
Memang tidak mudah untuk memberi patokan metode penulisan judul skripsi. Setiap fakultas dan universitas masing-masing memberi patokannya tersendiri. Namun, selain beberapa unsur kata yang tidak perlu dimasukkan ke dalam judul skripsi (baca entry saya Unsur Kata yang Tidak Perlu di Judul Skripsi), ada beberapa hal yang patut dipertimbangkan.
Rule 1
Capitalize the first word of a sentence or phrase.
Example:
The Use of Capitalization in Writing Thesis
Rule 2
Capitalize a proper noun.
Example:
SMU Muhammadiyah X
Rule 3
Capitalize a person's title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the title is acting as a description following the name.
Examples:
Chairperson Petrov
Ms. Petrov, the chairperson of the company
President Barrack Obama
Rule 4
Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions.
Examples:
The Effect of Marco Polo's Visit to The East
Rule 5
Always capitalize the first and last words of titles of publications regardless of their parts of speech. Capitalize other words within titles, including the short verb forms Is, Are, and Be.
Exception:
Do not capitalize little words within titles such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, or prepositions, regardless of their length.
Examples:
The Day of the Jackal
What Color Is Your Parachute?
A Tale of Two Cities
Rule 6
Capitalize federal or state when used as part of an official agency name or in government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they are being used as general terms, you may use lowercase letters.
Example:
The Ability of Departement Store Employees
Rule 7
Capitalize the names of specific course titles.
Example:
A Comparisan Study between Chemistry and Algebra
Rule 8
Give inverted commas or italicized words when we use another titles of books, films etc.
Examples:
Analysis The Use of Idiomatic Expressions in 'Harian Jurnal Medan' Newspaper or
Analysis The Use of Idiomatic Expressions in Harian Jurnal Medan Newspaper
Dari beberapa literature yang saya baca, metode dan patokan cara penulisan judul ini tidaklah sama di setiap negara termasuk untuk style American dan British English. Namun, yang terpenting Anda konsultasikan dengan dosen pembimbing Anda apakah sudah tepat cara penulisannya.
Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
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http://skripsi-fkip-inggris.blogspot.com/2012/10/unsur-kata-yang-tidak-perlu-di-judul.html
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Merancang Table of Contents
Merancang Table of Contents
Written by Ari Julianto
Dalam Scope and Limitation sudah jelas ada batasan-batasan tertentu, jadi tidak perlu deskripsi yang tidak perlu dimasukkan dalam Chapter II. Dalam skripsi di Chapter II cukup terdiri dari 6 atau 7 sub-judul. Jangan sampai terlampau banyak hingga 10 sub-judul sebab itu bisa menjadi momok bagi Anda di meja hijau nanti.Mengapa? karena bahasan-bahasan yang tidak perlu Anda masukkan sehingga Anda tidak fokus pada variable yang sebenarnya. Kita ambil contoh salah satu judul yang paling simple sepert berikut ini.
The Use of Adverb Clause in the Short Stories of Hello Magazine
Disini variable yang akan dibahas adalah Adverb Clause, dan Short Stories of Hello Magazine. Jadi outline dari Table of Contents judul tersebut bisa seperti berikut ini:
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of the Study
B. The Identification of the Problem
C. The Scope and Limitation
D. The Formulation of the Problem
E. The Objective of the Study
F. The Significance of the Study
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Framework
1. Description of Clause
2. Adverb Clauses
3. Types of Adverb Clause
3.1 Adverb Clause of Time
3.2 Adverb Clause of Place
3.3 Adverb Clause of Purpose
3.4 Adverb Clause of Cause or Reason
3.5 Adverb Clause of Result
3.6 Adverb Clause of Condition
3.7 Adverb Clause of Comparison
3.8 Adverb Clause of Concession
4. Functions of Adverb Clause
5. Positions of Adverb Clause
6. Description of Short Story
7. Description of Hello Magazine
B. Conceptual Framework
CHAPTER III METHOD OF RESEARCH
A. Source of the Data
B. Research Design
C. Technique of Collecting Data
D. Technique of Analyzing Data
Dari outline di atas, Anda bisa mengurangi dan menambahi salah satu dari sub-judulnya (tapi itu semua tergantung pada Dosen Pembimbing Anda). Misalnya, dalam Adverb Clause of Comparison ada beberapa jenis lagi yakni, Adverb Clause of Comparison of Manner dan Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree. Kemudian, bisa Anda tambahkan sub-judul Printed Media, Kinds of Printed Media yang pada akhirnya disebutkan Magazine.
Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amin.
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