Reduplication in Bahasa Indonesia

     Reduplication in Bahasa Indonesia

Written by James N. Sneddon in Indonesian Reference Grammar. Australia: Allen & Unwin.2008. pp.18-25


I. Full reduplication
Simple words (or free bases), complex words (consisting of an affix or more than one affix plus base) and the bases of complex words can be fully reduplicated. Full reduplication involves repeating the entire word. The resulting two bases or words are separated by a hyphen in writing. The second base or word is treated as the reduplicated part.



Examples of reduplicated free bases are buku-buku, tinggitinggi, duduk-duduk.
Examples of reduplicated complex words are perubahanperubahan (from base ubah), tulisan-tulisan (from base tulis).
Examples of reduplicated bases within a complex word are kemerah-merahan (from base merah), berkali-kali (from base kali), sebesar-besarnya (from base besar), melihat-lihat (from base lihat).

Full reduplication has many functions. Sometimes reduplication of bases cannot be discussed separately from a consideration of the affixes with which it occurs. For instance, the function of the reduplication of the bases in kuda-kudaan ‘toy horse’ and sebesar-besarnya ‘as big as possible’ is dependent on the particular combination of base and affix and cannot be described free from the overall forms in which it occurs. Such reduplication is discussed under the individual affixes. On the other hand, most full reduplication of words, whether simple or complex, and of some bases in complex words can be described free from a consideration of the particular affixes accompanying it.

II. Reduplication without corresponding single bases
Sometimes reduplicated forms have no unreduplicated counterparts to which they can be related. Such forms are often treated as single bases in dictionaries, although usually written with a hyphen. Such forms include laba-laba ‘spider’, tiba-tiba ‘suddenly’, sia-sia ‘futile’, pura-pura ‘pretend’, megap-megap ‘pant’, masing-masing ‘each’. Although single bases with the same form sometimes occur, these are chance similarities.

Thus the word tiba ‘arrive’ has no relationship (at least in modern Indonesian) to tiba-tiba ‘suddenly’. Some nouns consisting of repeated forms and are thus single bases. Many of these words are names of plants and animals, types of food and instruments, although such formations are not confined to these categories: cumi-cumi ‘squid’, kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’, alangalang ‘tall grass species’, koma-koma ‘saffron’, gado-gado ‘mixed vegetable dish’, ani-ani ‘small harvest knife’, oleh-oleh ‘gift’.
Sometimes a reduplicated form refers to something having two or more similar parts; a single base rarely or never occurs: paruparu ‘lungs’, baling-baling ‘propeller’, anting-anting ‘earring’.

Reduplication may produce a meaning which is different but nevertheless related to the meaning of the single base. Dictionaries inconsistently list such reduplicated forms under the single base or as separate entries. Such forms include:
gula sugar gula-gula sweets
laki husband laki-laki man
mata eye mata-mata spy
kuda horse kuda-kuda easel; trestle
langit sky langit-langit ceiling

In a few cases, such words can also indicate plurality. Thus kuda-kuda ‘horses’, mata-mata rantai ‘links of a chain’. The major function of noun reduplication is to indicate plurality. Both simple and complex nouns can be reduplicated to indicate plurality: piring-piring ‘plates’, rumah-rumah ‘houses’, singkatan-singkatan ‘abbreviations’, perubahan-perubahan ‘changes’.

III. Reduplication of Noun
A noun is not usually reduplicated unless it is unclear from context whether one or more than one is referred to and then only if this is important to what the speaker wishes to convey. In the first example below the number makes plurality specific, while in the second sentence plurality is clear from the general context; one does not usually buy a single shoe:
Menteri mengunjungi tiga negeri asing.
The minister visited three foreign countries.
Saya harus membeli sepatu baru.
I must buy new shoes.

Sometimes, however, a speaker does use reduplication eventhough plurality is clear from context:
Pulau-pulau Bali, Lombok dan Sumbawa terletak di sebelah timur pulau Jawa.
The islands of Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa are located east of Java.

Reduplication does not occur if a whole class of things is referred to. Neither noun in the following sentence can be reduplicated: Anjing suka tulang. 'Dogs like bones'. It is sometimes stated that reduplication of nouns indicates variety rather than plurality (although plurality is implied by variety). Indonesian writers disagree on this question, but clearly reduplication can be used where variety is of no importance.

In the following sentences there is no focus at all on variation among the mango trees, links of the chain or water containers; what is stressed is that there is more than one:
Rumahnya dekat pohon-pohon mangga itu.
His house is near those mango trees.
Mata-mata rantai berbentuk bulat.
The links of the chain are round.
Pada pinggangnya terikat bumbung-bumbung kosong.
At his waist are tied empty bamboo water containers.

Reduplication is not normally used in reference to things which come in pairs, such as certain body parts. Where it is felt necessary to indicate plurality in such cases, belah ‘half; one of something which comes in a pair’ is usually used. When a noun is followed by a modifying noun, usually only the head noun is reduplicated:
buku-buku sejarah history books
toko-toko buku bookshops

There is sometimes disagreement among Indonesians as towhether or not a noun and modifying noun should both be repeated; in some common combinations either the head noun alone is repeated or both are, speakers differing as to what is acceptable; thus: surat-surat kabar or surat kabar-surat kabar ‘newspapers’.

When a noun and a following possessive noun both refer to more than one, it is often possible to repeat either noun:
Sebutkanlah nama-nama universitas yang termasuk SKALU.
Sebutkanlah nama universitas-universitas yang termasuk SKALU.
Give the names of the universities in SKALU.

IV. Reduplication of Pronoun 
The following personal pronouns can be reduplicated: saya ‘I’, kami ‘we (exclusive)’, kita ‘we (inclusive)’, kamu ‘you’, beliau ‘he, she (respectful)’ and mereka ‘they’. For all these except mereka, reduplication usually  has a be littling or disparaging connotation:
Mengapa hanya saya-saya yang selalu diberi tugas yang berat ini?
Why is it always poor old me who gets these hard jobs?
Jangan berbuat gaduh di sini, beliau-beliau sedang rapat!
Don’t be noisy, the big shots are having a meeting!

For mereka, reduplication conveys emphasis; the pronoun  is usually followed by a relative clause introduced by yang:  
Mereka-mereka yang belum terdaftar harap lekas mendaftarkan diri.
Those who aren’t enrolled yet should enrol as soon as possible.

V. Reduplication of adjectives
Reduplication of an adjective usually occurs when the noun it describes is plural; reduplication indicates that the characteristic indicated by the adjective applies to all the objects:
sekitar 230 pulau yang kecil-kecil ukurannya
about 230 small islands
hutan-rimba yang pohonnya tinggi-tinggi sekali
a forest whose trees are very tall
Gambarmu bagus-bagus.
Your drawings are beautiful.

A reduplicated adjective can occur alone, functioning like a concessive clause introduced by meskipun:
Kecil-kecil, si Ali sudah pacaran.
Although young, Ali already has a girlfriend.
Sakit-sakit, dia pergi juga ke sekolah.
Although sick, he still went to school.
Reduplicated adjectives can function as adverbs:
Anak itu berteriak keras-keras.
The child screamed loudly.

VI. Reduplication of verbs
Unlike complex nouns, complex verbs only undergo full reduplication of the base; that is, bases are repeated and affixes then attached to them. There are several functions.With some verbs reduplication gives a connotation of action done in a casual or leisurely way:
duduk sit duduk-duduk sit about berjalan walk
berjalan-jalan walk about, go for a stroll
melihat see melihat-lihat browse, have a look around
membuka open membuka-buka (buku) leaf through (a book)

With many verbs reduplication indicates continued action, either an action done over a period of time or an action performed repeatedly:
Bu Yem mengurut-urut rambut anaknya.
Mrs Yem stroked her child’s hair (a number of times).
Potongan kayu itu terapung-apung di atas air.
The piece of wood fl oated on the water.
Dia berteriak-teriak minta tolong.
He shouted and shouted for help.
Menteri menunda-nunda keberangkatannya.
The minister kept delaying his departure.

With some verbs reduplication gives a meaning somewhat different from that of the single form, usually conveying a sense of intensity:
menjadi become menjadi-jadi get worse
meminta request meminta-minta beg
membesarkan enlarge membesar-besarkan exaggerate
berganti replace berganti-ganti alternate, keep changing places

Accompanied by tidak ‘not’ reduplication of the verb can indicate that the action has not occurred, usually implying that this is contrary to expectation:
Sudah dua hari Pak Tanto tidak muncul-muncul.
Mr Tanto hasn’t turned up for two days now.
Mereka tidak menyinggung-nyinggung masalah itu di rapat kemarin.
They just didn’t mention the matter in the meeting yesterday.
A few verbs, including datang ‘come’, bangun ‘wake up’, pulang ‘arrive home’, can be reduplicated to function like correlative clauses introduced by begitu ‘no sooner’ :
Bangun-bangun mereka sudah bertengkar.
No sooner were they awake than they began to argue.

VII. Reduplication of numbers
Reduplication of numbers forms adverbs meaning ‘in a group of so many’:
Bicaralah satu-satu.
Speak one at a time.
Mereka masuk dua-dua.
They came in two at a time.
The numbers can also be separated by demi or per.
Numbers for ‘two’ to ‘four’ can also occur with prefix ber-.

VIII. Partial reduplication
Partial reduplication occurs only with bases which begin with a consonant. It involves placing before the base a syllable consisting of the fi rst consonant of the base followed by e. This type of reduplication is no longer productive in the language; it occurs with a few bases, mainly nouns, and cannot be applied to others. The reduplicated word has a meaning which is the same as that of the single form or is related to it. Sometimes, as in the first example below, the historical relationship is not obvious:
tangga ladder tetangga neighbour
jaka bachelor jejaka bachelor
laki husband lelaki man
luhur noble leluhur ancestors
tamu guest tetamu guests
tapi but tetapi but

IX. Imitative reduplication
In imitative reduplication the two parts of the word are not identical, though they are similar. Nouns, adjectives and verbs can all undergo imitative reduplication. The variation between the two parts of the word can involve either consonants or vowels. Imitative reduplication is not productive; new forms cannot be created, nor can the two parts of the word change places. Frequently only the first component of the word occurs as a simple word. In some cases, neither part can occur alone. The reduplication usually indicates variety or emphasises the meaning of the first component. Imitative reduplication is not greatly different from some types of compounding and could alternatively be placed in that category.The difference may be only the first consonant:
sayur-mayur ‘vegetables’ (sayur ‘vegetable’), lauk-pauk ‘side dishes’ (lauk ‘side dish’), ramah-tamah ‘hospitable and friendly’ (ramah ‘friendly’). Some combinations may be considered as instances of imitative reduplication, although they actually consist of two existing independent parts, such as cerai-berai ‘scattered, dispersed’ (cerai ‘separated’, berai ‘dispersed’) and kaya-raya ‘very wealthy’ (kaya ‘rich’, raya ‘great’).

The difference may be in the vowels. There may be only one vowel difference: desas-desus ‘rumour’, warna-warni ‘all kinds of colours’ (warna ‘colour’), gerak-gerik ‘movements, gestures’(gerak ‘movement’). Usually there are two vowel differences. It is most common for the first component to contain the vowels o…a and the second component to contain the vowels a…i, although these are not the only combinations. Often, with this type of imitative reduplication, neither part of the word can occur alone: bolakbalik ‘to and fro’ (balik ‘return’), pontang-panting ‘run helter skelter’, obrak-abrik ‘destroy, smash to pieces’, mundar-mandir ‘back and forth’, tindak-tanduk ‘behaviour’ (tindak ‘action’), asal-usul ‘origin, descent’ (asal ‘origin’), teka-teki ‘riddle’.