The concepts of love in Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems (INTRODUCTION)

The concepts of love in Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems (INTRODUCTION)

                                       Written by Ari Julianto


                                                                   1.1 Background of the Study

Rumi and Gibran

Through language, as the media for communication, people can express their feelings or ideas about something to the receiver. Meanwhile, movie, novel, short story, play, poetry or poem can be the medium for expressing the experience, feeling or idea. Poetry or poem is the literary work that can be formed from the writer’s feeling, observation, or experience. In poem, a poet asks readers to participate in understanding the meaning or even their world. The language used in poem can be far from the ordinary words and the words can be explained more than one meaning. In order to understand the meaning of words, the reader should read the whole content of what a poem says as Arp (2005: 25) says.

In this research, poem becomes an object of the study. The reason is that poem is one of literary works which sometimes contains various themes of human senses and feelings, such as sadness, happiness, poverty, depression, hate or love etc. Childs and Roger (2006: 181) state that the terms ‘poem’, ‘poetry’, ‘poetic’ and ‘poetics’ seem to be necessarily frequent in critical writing but various in their senses. The commonest use of ‘poem’ is ‘any composition in verse’: Verse referring to a set of technical conventions for regulating a composition by line-length, for making the line part of the expressive form, and ‘poem’ claiming to be a genre-term subsuming any production which utilizes that convention.

Along with the ‘love’ which is used in many poems as the themes, the writer chose ‘love’ as the main topic. The reason is that love comes in many forms including in literature works. There is love for God, love between a parent and child, brothers and sisters, or love given by a person to an animal or object. It basically comes down to the fact that everyone inevitably either loves something or someone. Humans create love out of strong, personal bonds. Love gives us the assurance that we are not alone in the world. In a larger aspect, love runs the world around us. People love money and that creates a drive for them to work harder and run businesses. On a smaller scale, we survive as children because of the love our parents or caregivers provide for us. Love is (usually) how we are all created in the first place, so technically we wouldn't be here without it.

Rubin (1970: 265) states that love is generally regarded to be the deepest and most meaningful of sentiments. It has occupied a preeminent position in the art and literature of every age, and it is presumably experienced, at least occasionally, by the vast majority of people. In Western culture, moreover, the association between love and marriage gives it a unique status as a link between the individual and the structure of society.

As mentioned above that love comes in many forms including in literature works, poets express their feelings of love in poems. There are many famous love poets in literature world such as Robert Browning, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, Robert Frost, Nizar Qabban, Ibn Al Farid, Jalalluddin Rumi, Khalil Gibran and many other poets whose works until now are still remembered by romantic poem lovers. The two famous poets as mentioned above that is Jalaluddin Rumi, Khalil Gibran are considered as the most influence poets in the world.

The writer chose Jalalluddin Rumi and Khalil Gibran by considering that first Khalil Gibran is a major pioneer of modern Arabic literature, as the best selling American poet of the twentieth century, and as a Middle Eastern modernist whose intellectual life is documented in meticulous detail. Meanwhile Rumi’s teaching of peace and tolerance has appealed to men and women of all sects and creeds, and continues to draw followers from all parts of the Muslim and non-Muslim world.

Second, Gibran’s romanticism was a health-restoring revival of the instinctual life in contradistinction to the constraints that sought to sublimate human freedom in the united name of social tradition or religious conformity; in many ways his rebellion was akin to the beginnings of Romanticism in England a century earlier, when Blake, Wordsworth, and Shelley strove to explore the literature of internalized quest and Promethean aspiration. Meanwhile, as a teacher and a mystic, Rumi’s doctrine advocates tolerance, reasoning, goodness, charity and awareness through love, looking with the same eye on Muslims, Jews, Christians and others alike. Today, this message of love, peace and friendship finds strong resonation in people’s hearts.

Bushrui and Jenkins (2008: 1) state that as an oriental who wrote Gibran’s most celebrated work in the major language of the Western world, Gibran’s style and philosophy is characteristic of the East, and of the Arab in particular. His constant inspiration was his own heritage, which colored his English and exercised an inescapable hold over his mind, its insistence being upon the wholeness of visionary experience and the perpetual availability of another realm of being. In all his work he expressed the deep-felt desire of men and women for a kind of spiritual life that renders the material world meaningful and imbues it with dignity.

Eydin (2004: 3) writes that Rumi’s message was to clarify the relation of human beings to our Creator, and our relation to others and our fellow beings. Even in his day, Rumi was sought out by merchants and king, devout worshippers and rebellious seekers, famous scholars and common peasants, men and women.

By considering the importance of knowing the love message in the poems of Khalil Gibran and Jalalluddin, the writer chose the topic of love in the poems of these two poets. This research aims to narrow the field of "love" and enable distinction between the two poets who have experienced expanded consciousness and the two poets who display random love tendencies. Through a comparative study of these two prominent poets, the thesis falls on psychological approach. These points of association are brought together to create a new framework suitable for the examination of similar poets from various religious and literary traditions.

1.2 Problem Identification
The problem of this study focuses on
1.  The concepts of love in Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems,
2. The differences between Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems in the concepts of love,
3. The similarities between Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems in the concepts of love.

1.3 Research Objective
The objectives of the study is aimed 
1.  to describe the concepts of love in Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems,
2.  to find out the differences between Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems in the concept of love,
3. to find out the similarities between Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi’s poems in the concept of love.

1.4 Scope of the Study
This thesis examines the concepts of love which is generally regarded to be the deepest and most meaningful of sentiments. It has occupied a preeminent position in the art and literature of every age, and it is presumably experienced, at least occasionally, by the vast majority of people. The writer focuses the concepts of love in love and mystical poems of Khalil Gibran and Jalalludin Rumi.

1.5 Significance
All the findings are expected to meet the problems of identification such as:
1.    to give the description of concepts of love in the poems,
2.    to show all the readers the differences and the similarities of the concept of love based on the poems of Khalil Gibran and Jalalluddin Rumi so they could implement the concepts of love in their life in order to understand the comparison,
3.    to assist the readers in understanding the two famous poets that considered as the main poets of world literature through the concepts of love in their poems so the readers could more understand the literature work.


Reference
Arp, T.R. 2005. Perrine’s Sound and Sense: an Introduction to Poetry (11th ed.). USA: Harcourt Brace & Company.

Childs, Peter and Roger Fowler. 2006. The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.

Rubin, Zick. 1970. Measurement Of Romantic Love. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol. 16, No. 2, 265-273 Department of  Social Relations, Harvard university.

Bushrui, Suheil and Joe Jenkins. 2008. Kahlil Gibran Man and Poet A New Biography. Oxford: One World Publisher

Eydin, Emin. 2004. Mevlana Jelaleddin Rumi. London: Dialog Society.

Social Research in Brief

            Social Research in Brief


Written by Norman Blaikie in Analyzing Quantitative Data From Description to Explanation. London: SAGE. 2003. PP.34-36.


- Social research must start with a research problem, an intellectual puzzle or a practical problem.

Image:www.digital-mr.com

- Social research is about answering three types of research questions: ‘what’,‘why’ and ‘how’ questions.

- Social research pursues a range of objectives: exploration, description, explanation, understanding, prediction, intervention, evaluation and impact assessment. The objectives of explanation and understanding are expressed as ‘why’ questions and the objective of intervention as ‘how’ questions. The remaining objectives are mostly related to ‘what’ questions.

- Research objectives are frequently pursued in a logical sequence, the most common of which is description, explanation/understanding and intervention.

- Theoretical hypotheses provide possible answers to ‘why’ research questions.

- Statistical hypotheses are used to establish whether patterns found in a random sample are present in its population. This is their only role in social research.

- Data are produced by the use of the human senses, mainly sight and hearing,and through the use of instruments that extend and systematize their use. This requires agreement about rules and criteria. Such procedures do not guarantee objectivity, only comparability between times, places and researchers.

- All forms of measurement in the social sciences are socially constructed by experts, the data they produce, and the results that follow, have to be understood in terms of the assumptions and procedures adopted.

- These assumptions are both ontological and epistemological and, while they are usually taken for granted, they can be understood with reference to one of the major philosophies of social science: positivism, critical rationalism, scientific realism and interpretivism.

- There are three types of social science data: primary, secondary and tertiary. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages and varies in terms of the distance it creates between the researcher and the social reality being studied.

- Social science data can be either qualitative or quantitative, in either words or numbers. Transformations between words and numbers, or in the reverse direction, can occur at various stages in a research project.

- Quantitative data are expressed in the form of variables that are produced by operationalizing the key concepts in research questions and theoretical hypotheses.

- Concepts can be measured at four different levels. From lowest to highest,these are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The first two produce categorical variables, because objects, events or people are placed into one of a set of mutually exclusive categories. The second two produce metric variables,as objects, events or people are mapped onto an established measuring scale.

- Metric variables can be either discrete or continuous. The former consist only of whole numbers, while the latter have an unlimited number of possible values between the whole numbers.

- Data can be transformed from metric to categorical. While this means some loss of information, and entails the use of less sophisticated forms of analysis, it may allow for a better understanding of the characteristics or relationships being examined.

- There are four main types of data analysis: univariate descriptive, bivariate descriptive, explanatory and inferential. The first two are concerned with characteristics and patterns in data, the third with influence between variables and the fourth with generalizing from samples to populations. Explanatory analysis is the ultimate objective in social research and is also the most complex.

- Explanation is usually associated with the idea of causation. However, this is a highly contested notion and has to be reduced to simpler ideas to be Social research and data analysis useful in social research. One way of doing this is in terms of the influence between independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome) variables.

- Different views of causation are associated with the major logics of enquiry: inductive, deductive, retroductive and abductive. These logics also constitute different research strategies.

Writing Acknowledgement

Writing Acknowledgement



Written by Ari Julianto

An academic thesis paper includes thesis acknowledgement as part of it and its designation lies in thanking those people who have served a writer in creating the study and making an academic paper. That's why thesis acknowledgement is sometimes called the etiquette of thanking.  This is an expression of gratitude to those that have presented the writer their support and help, as well as gave assistance and recommendations of major importance.

I. The Styles
Generally, there are two styles in writing thesis acknowledgement:
1. Descriptive style
In this style, the writer may present his/her gratitude in descriptive way that can be in one paragraph or more. For example:

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my committee chair Professor _________, who has the attitude and the substance of a genius: he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to research and scholarship, and an excitement in regard to teaching. Without his guidance and persistent help this thesis would not have been possible. Furthermore, I would like to thank my committee members, Professor _______ and Professor _______, whose work demonstrated to me that concern for global affairs supported by an “engagement” in comparative literature and modern technology, should always transcend academia and provide a quest for our times.

2. Numbered Style
In this style, the writer may present his/her gratitude to those ho are considered by the writer as important persons in numbered. It means the writer puts the persons in grade. For example:

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to:
1. my committee chair Professor _________, who has the attitude and the substance of a genius: he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to research and scholarship, and an excitement in regard to teaching. Without his guidance and persistent help this thesis would not have been possible.
2. my committee members, Professor _______ and Professor _______, whose work demonstrated to me that concern for global affairs supported by an “engagement” in comparative literature and modern technology, should always transcend academia and provide a quest for our times.

II.First and Third Person
To address the author or the writer of the thesis in acknowledgement can be in two ways, they are:

a. First person as in the following example

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Professor _________, who introduced me to Linguistics, and whose passion for the “underlying structures” had lasting effect. I thank the University of _______ for consent to include copyrighted pictures as a part of my thesis. I also thank ___ Press for permission to include Chapter 5 of my dissertation, which was originally published in ____Journal. I also want to thank to _______ Foundation for their financial support granted through college fellowship.

b. Third person as in the following example 

The writer wishes to thank several people. He  would like to thank his partner, Marta, for her love, kindness and support she has shown during the past two years to finalize this thesis. Furthermore he would also like to thank his parents for their endless love and support. He would like to thank Dr. Smith as well for his assistance and guidance with this paper. Last but not least, he would like to all of his classmates in Literature Faculty.

III.Order of the Names
Thesis acknowledgement is a concise vote of thank you, which merely mentions those people who have been directly concerned in the thesis creation. There is also no need to say all those people who took part in the writer’s formation as being a scientist, a thinker, along with a researcher.

The appropriate persons that can be mentioned in thesis acknowledgement are:
The Dean, The head of Department, The secretary of Department, The Supervisors, The Lecturers, The Librarians, The Laboratory assistants, The Fellow College Students, Colleagues, Parents, Family and friends.

The order of putting the above persons has been a long debated in Indonesia. The problem appears when the writer especially in a Moslem country considers that putting the parents in the uppest position is an obligation after ALLAH and the Prophet of Muhammad SAW (pbuh). Meanwhile, academic thesis paper puts The Dean of the Faculty as the first order.

Actually, this can be solved by combining the two styles (descriptive and numbered styles as shown in the following example:

In the name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful, praise be to Allah subhanawata’ala. Firstly, the researcher would like to thank to Allah Subhanawata’ala who has given her the chances in finishing this thesis. Secondly, blessing and peace be upon the Prophet Muhammad SAW (pbuh) who has brought human beings from the dark era into the bright era. Thirdly, the writer would like to thank to M. Yunus and Siti Aisyah, her beloved parents for their prayer, support and love.

In writing this thesis, the researcher faced a lot of difficulties and problems in analyzing and collecting the data that without much help from the following people, it was impossible for her to finish this thesis. Therefore, the researcher would like to thank

1. _______, her respected Dean of FKIP, who  had  encouraged her along her education,
2. _______The Head of English Department and the Secretary _______ for their help and suggestions
related to the improvement and approval of her thesis and other administrative support,
and so on...

Thus, the appropriate order of persons in thesis acknowledgement can be:

(in descriptive way)
1. Allah SWT
2. The Prophet Muhammad SAW
3. Parents

(in numbered way)
1. The Dean,
2. The Head of Department,
3. The Secretary of Department,
4. The Supervisors,
5. The lecturers,
6. The head or the leader where the research took place,
7. The head of the library,
8. Husband/Wife (if any),
9. Brothers/Sisters (if any),
10. Sons/Daughters (if any),
11. Fiance/Fiancee (if any),
12. Best Friends including those who helped in finishing the thesis,
13. Friends including classmates.

NB:
Some faculties sometimes have their own formats in writing thesis acknowledgement. My suggestion and writing in this posting is an alternative way. Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.

The Use of Television Advertisement in Increasing the Students’ Achievement in Writing Narrative Paragraph (INTRODUCTION)

The Use of Television Advertisement in Increasing the Students’ Achievement in Writing Narrative Paragraph (INTRODUCTION)


                                         Written by Ari Julianto

  

Image: www.ttacnews.vcu.edu

A. The Background of the Study
As we know, writing is one of the English skills in school. In teaching and learning a foreign language, writing is very helpful for the students to learn a language because it provides many advantages, such as: writing reinforce, grammar, structure, idiom, and vocabulary. Therefore, the students have chances to be adventurous with the language to express ideas and constant use of eyes and brain in a unique way to reinforce a new language. A short reflection should convince the students that they think about many things and a solution to the problem will be found at last in an examination of what they already have in mind. The purpose of writing paragraph is the students can write what their want to write based on what they think.

The researcher chose the topic of writing by considering that based on the experience in teaching English that some of the students have several problems in writing paragraph. There were 30% of the students who still did not know how to write narrative paragraph. The problems are they do not have any media as an inspiration for their writing. Besides, they still have no idea what kind of writing they must chose in writing a paragraph.

Reeves (1998: 1) stated that there are two major approaches to using media and technology in schools. First, students can learn “from” media and technology, and second, they can learn “with” media and technology.  Learning “from” media and technology is often referred to in terms such as instructional television, computer-based instruction, or integrated learning systems. Learning “with” technology is referred to in terms such as cognitive tools and constructivist learning environments.

One of the media is television. Most all children like to imitate what they watch especially the words appear in television. Students sometimes repeat the words in television especially through advertisement. Advertisement is broadcasted over and over each time for commercial break. Children or students sometimes do not want to miss this commercial break of advertisement.dvertisements, as a public notice or announcement, usually paid for, as of thing for sale, needs, etc.

Agustrijanto (2002: 7) points out “Advertisement is each from of communication that has intended to motivate, to promote a product at a service to someone, the potential buyers”. This influenced and wins the public’s opinion to think and take measures in accordance with the wish of the advertiser.

From the explanation of the advertisement, generally advertisement is defined as non personal communication of information usually paid for and persuade in nature about products, services, or ideas be identified sponsor through various media. In advertisement, there are many multimedia terms to represent their needs. Through advertisement, students can express what they remember in writing. From writing we can obtain the students’ ability in understanding the message of the advertisement.

Writing a narrative text by using a TV advertisement can be an interesting lesson for the students because they can explore what they want to write in their mind based what they remember by watching advertisement. Regardless of the approach, media and technology have been introduced into schools because it is believed that they can have positive effects on teaching and learning.

Based on the previous explanation, the researcher would like to analyze the students’ ability in writing narrative paragraph based on the use of TV advertisement. The reasons for choosing this topic are as follows
1. TV advertisement is one of media can improve the students’ ability in learning language especially writing, Kozma (1991: 9),
2. Students sometimes take an example from what they watch in their daily lives,
3. Students can explore what they watch and remember by writing a narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement.

B. The Identification of the Problems
The problems of this study are identified as follows:
1. the improvement of students’ writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement,
2. the students’ behavior when they study narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement.

C. The Scope and Limitation
This research is focused on the use of TV advertisement in teaching narrative paragraph especially the students’ ability and disability in writing narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement broadcasted in Indonesia. There are many advertisements and in this research, the researcher only chose the advertisement appeared in television. In television, the researcher chose the educational advertisement and that is why the kind of food advertisement .......... as the object of this research. Meanwhile, the subjects of this research are the first year (X) of .................of academic year 2012/2013. In this case, the students have to watch the .............advertisement at home or by video clip in handphone for many times.

D. The Formulation of the Study
The problems of this study were formulated as follows
1.  does the use of TV advertisement improve the students’ ability in writing narrative paragraph?
 2.  how do the students behave when they study narrative paragraph through TV advertisement?

E. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. to describe the students’ improvement in writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement,
2. to find out the students’ behavior in writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement.

F. The Significance of the Study
It is expected that the results of this study will be useful for:
1. the university students who would like to write a narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement,
2. contribution of the teachers/lecturers who would like to know the students’ ability in writing a narrative paragraph,
3.  other researcher who are interested in writing based on TV advertisement, and finally
4. the high school students who would like to improve their ability in writing a narrative paragraph.


REFERENCE
Agustrijanto. 2002. Copy Writing. Bandung: Rosda Karya.

Kozma, R.B. 1991. Learning with Media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179-212. University of Michigan.

Reeves, Thomas C. 1998. The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools,.Georgia: The University of Georgia.

The Influence of Dutch in Bahasa Indonesia (2)

The Influence of Dutch in Bahasa Indonesia (2)


Written by James Sneddon in The Indonesian Language, Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW.2003.pp.160-167.


In early borrowings, final clusters were removed, either by the addition of a vowel, as in lampu (lamp) and pompa (pump), or dropping of the final consonant, as in pos (post) and ban (tyre — \Dutch band). Complex clusters could be removed by both adding a vowel and dropping the final consonant, as in dinas (service — Dutch dienst). Clusters later became acceptable, especially in the pronunciation
of those fluent in Dutch, with words such as pers (press) and helm (helmet) entering the language. Much inconsistency occurs in acceptance of features of Dutch phonology, as it does in spontaneous borrowing from other languages.Thus the final rs is retained in kurs (currency rate — Dutch koers), but avoided by the addition of a vowel in bursa (stock exchange — Dutch beurs).

In traditional Malay, the mid-central schwa vowel could not appear in word-final syllables, whether open or closed by a consonant. While the schwa vowel entered in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, its acceptability was strengthened by borrowings from Dutch, such as liter (litre) and wortel (carrot). Moreover, borrowings from Dutch introduced word-final schwa, as in the suffix -isme, and various common words, like tante (aunt), orde (order, regime) and kode (code). Alisjahbana pleaded against this, strongly disagreeing with the change to the traditional Malay phonological system, and insisting on writing a instead of e in final syllables, such as koda, nasionalisma. In this he was unsuccessful; the change has become entirely accepted in the standard language.

Traditional Malay had a pattern of vowel harmony whereby, among other things, a high vowel (i, u) could not occur in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (e, o) occurred in the preceding syllable and a mid-vowelcould not occur in the final syllable if there was a high vowel in the second ast syllable. This system has disappeared in the modern language, partly as a result of borrowing from Dutch, with words  like vonis (punish) and tenis (tennis) breaking the rule.

With the increase in bilingualism, educated Indonesians tended to retain more features of Dutch phonology. In more recent borrowings, f is retained, rather than being replaced by p, as in fraksi (faction — in a political party or in parliament). The Dutch v is replaced by f rather than p (although the letter v is retained in writing), as in veto (veto).

Some borrowings, earlier pronounced and spelt with p, have now replaced this by f, with f or v retained in spelling, as in the Dutch. Thus earlier Nopember (November) was replaced by November. Uneducated speakers are still likely to use p instead of f in these words. In borrowings of scientific words with initial ps, the spelling of the original is retained, although the p is not pronounced; for example, psikologi (psychology) and psikiater (psychiatrist). One-syllable words did not occur in traditional Malay, apart from a few function words like dan (and) and ke (to). Early borrowings sometimes added a final vowel, such as buku (book). However, a considerable number of common Dutch words of one syllable were later accepted into the language, such as pet (cap), lap (cleaning cloth) and got (gutter, drain).

In borrowing from Dutch, the tendency has been to follow the pronunciation of the original where possible and to modify spelling of the word accordingly, as in numerous examples already given. In some cases, the spelling change to reflect pronunciation is more drastic. This is particularly common where the Dutch word is itself a borrowing from French, Dutch having retained French spelling, as in
kudeta (coup d’état — Dutch coup d’etat),
kado (gift — Dutch cadeau) and  
koran (newspaper — Dutch courant).

By the mid-1960s, Dutch had almost entirely been replaced by English as a source of innovations in the language. The 1983 wordlist thus could well be regarded as a definitive listing of Dutch borrowings; borrowing from Dutch was by then a thing of the past. On the other hand, the influence of English was really only beginning in the 1960s and has been accelerating since then.

The 1983 study did not take into consideration Dutch borrowings into other than Standard Indonesian. In those regional varieties of Malay where a significant proportion of the population had long had access to Dutch education, many Dutch words occur in everyday speech that are unknown in the standard language. As one example, Manado Malay has many Dutch words in common use, such as:
fakansi holiday (Dutch vakantie)
fals dishonest (Dutch vals)
forek fork (Dutch vork)
ram window (Dutch raam)

Besides contributing numerous words directly to the language, Dutch has also been the source of many loan translations, Indonesian phrases created on the basis of Dutch models. These include:
kerja sama co-operate (Dutch samenwerking)
luar negeri overseas (literally ‘outside the country’ —Dutch buitenland)
mengambil take over (Dutch overnemen) alih
rumah sakit hospital (literally ‘sick house’ — Dutch ziekenhuis)

A number of new suffixes have entered the language through borrowing from Dutch. When words containing affixes (which are called prefixes if they precede the base and suffixes if they follow the base) are first borrowed, they are usually taken over as single meaningful units in the recipient language. Frequently, Indonesian borrowed two or more related forms from Dutch, such as aktif (active) and aktivis (activist), popular (popular) and popularitas (popularity).

While Indonesians using such words are aware of their similarities in form and meaning, it is not always possible to identify a base form for members of such sets nor to identify particular parts as affixes. When, however, a beginning or ending of a word comes to be used with a variety of different forms that can stand alone, it takes on the status of a prefix or suffix. This has happened with a number of Dutch affixes, including -isme, borrowed as a part of words like nasionalisme (nationalism). This has now become an assimilated Indonesian suffix because it can be applied to new bases, as in sukuisme (tribalism — suku ‘tribe, ethnic group’). The Dutch noun-forming endings -atie, pronounced ‘atsi’, and -isatie were retained as -(is)asi in numerous borrowings, such as nasionalisasi (nationalisation).

This has become a particularly ‘successful’ suffix, replacing the Dutch -(iser)ing in words like modernisasi (modernisation — Dutch modernisering) and later replacing the English ending ‘-ation’ in words like ekstensifikasi (extensification). The Dutch adjective-forming ending -isch was retained in borrowings as -is, as in dinamis (dynamic) and dramatis (dramatic). A number of words were borrowed with the Dutch suffix -teit, but these were later replaced by their original Latin forms with the suffix -tas, such as universitas (university — Dutch universiteit) and kualitas (quality — Dutch kwaliteit).

As already mentioned, Dutch has also played an enormous role in the development of syntax in the formal language, through the influence of educated bilinguals. In writing, this includes the development of more complex sentence structure and paragraph organisation. It also resulted in a significant shift from passive to active constructions. This trend continued under the influence of English.

The Influence of Dutch in Bahasa Indonesia (1)

The Influence of Dutch in Bahasa Indonesia (1)


Written by James Sneddon in The Indonesian Language, Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW.2003.pp.160-167.


Although the Dutch first appeared in the archipelago at the beginning of the 17th century, their language did not begin to have a noticeable influence until much later. In the Moluccas and in Batavia, attempts by the Dutch to use their language in church services, in schools and in administration had little success. After a brief attempt in the Moluccas,Dutch was replaced by Malay in school teaching and in religious services; in Batavia it was replaced by Portuguese and Malay.

The English grammarian William Marsden noted in 1812 that ‘several Dutch terms’ had been adopted into Malay, presumably as indication of very limited penetration at that time. Dutch did not begin to have a significant influence on Malay until the beginning of the 20th  century, when children of the Indonesian gentry began entering European schools and Dutch was also introduced as a subject at training colleges for native teachers and pubic servants. With growing demand among the Indonesian elite for Dutch education and limited places available for them in European schools, Dutch-language native schools were established in 1914. With improving means of long distance travel, a greater number of Europeans began to enter Indonesia, resulting in greater Western influence on society. This led to further demand for Dutch language among the small Indonesian elite, among whom knowledge of the language was becoming the mark of status, particularly as the opportunity for Dutch education was largely confined to the higher class.

Proficiency in Dutch also opened the door to well-paid jobs in commerce and administration, and command of Dutch was the gateway to European culture.28 By 1930, about 230000 Indonesians spoke Dutch, increasing to about 400 000 with command of the language in 1941, although this was less than 1 per cent of the total Indies population.

There thus emerged a sizeable bilingual population among the educated leaders of pre-war indigenous society. For many of them, Dutch was their preferred language and, when speaking Indonesian, the use of Dutch words was a symbol of prestige and social status. Use of Dutch words was also a necessity for many topics, there being no suitable Malay words for discussing politics, economics and science.

Before 1942, many Dutch words entered the language spontaneously, without deliberate selection, through such bilingualism. From the beginning of formal language planning, with the Komisi Bahasa in 1942, a number of Dutch words also entered through the language planning process. After independence, Dutch remained the major source for scientific and technical terms under the Terminology Commission until 1966, although most of the terms selected were not taken up by the population in general. Many more words entered spontaneously in various domains of everyday life, because they were used by the educated elite in their spoken and written Indonesian  and were spread by the press.

After independence, Dutch was no longer a medium of instruction in education and there was pride among Indonesians in having their own national language. Nevertheless, the use of Dutch among the educated continued and retained a prestige status. In the 1960s, there was still a substantial population of proficient speakers of the language; a study of Indonesian students in the USA, carried out in 1962, found that 20 of the group of 26 had at least some facility in Dutch.30 One writer stated in 1979 that ‘the Dutch-educated generation is dead, dying or about to be pensioned off’.31 Despite such exaggerated claims, even at the beginning of the 21st century there was a surprising number of educated people in the older age group, those who had had a Dutch education up to 1949 or had had the opportunity of tertiary study in the Netherlands in the 1950s, who were fluent in the language.

Nevertheless, by the late 1950s educated Indonesians were beginning to turn to English. By the mid-1960s, Dutch influence on Indonesian was drawing to a close as the influence of English began to grow rapidly. Among early borrowings from Dutch were kantor (office), kamar (room), and buku (book).  As Dutch customs were introduced, Dutch words were frequently employed. For instance, Dutch influence on cooking and eating habits resulted in such items as:
buncis beans
kol cabbage
kompor stove
poding pudding
sosis sausage
wortel carrot

Items of clothing include:
helm helmet
hem shirt
kerah collar (Dutch kraag)
piama pyjamas
ritsleting zipper
rok skirt
selop slipper (Dutch slof)

The Indonesian legal system is based on that of the Netherlands and many legal terms are Dutch, such as:
advokat lawyer
kasasi overturning of judgment
kasus case
pleidoi defence
vonis sentence
yuris law graduate

In other areas of modern life introduced by the Dutch, such as medicine and education, there has also been significant borrowing. In technical areas also, many terms are Dutch, including electrical terms such as:
listrik electricity
per light bulb
steker electrical plug
stop kontak socket
strom current

A great many words to do with motor vehicles are Dutch, including:
bensin petrol
klakson horn
kopling clutch
oli lubricating oil
persneling, versneling gear
rem brake

In many spheres of everyday life, Dutch has intruded. The common words for ‘uncle’ and ‘aunt’ were largely replaced by om (Dutch oom) and tante, particularly as terms of address. Among a great many everyday words are:
antre queue (Dutch aantreden ‘line up’)
asbak ashtray
gelas (drinking) glass
handuk towel
pamili, famili relatives, (extended) family
restoran restaurant
setrika iron
televisi television

The names of the months, Januari, Februari and so on, are all from Dutch.Earlier borrowings tended to be modified to fit with Malay phonology and syllable structure. Thus Dutch f and v were replaced by p: fabriek became pabrik (factory) and koffer became kopor, koper (box,suitcase). The Dutch sound spelt u or uu is a high front rounded vowel that does not exist in Indonesian and borrowings with this sound generally omitted the lip rounding, leaving i, as in bis (bus — Dutch bus) and setir (steering wheel — Dutch stuur). In traditional Malay there were few consonant clusters, these comprising word-medial nasal-stop clusters like mp, nt, ngk, and r plus another consonant, such as in pernah (ever). While borrowing from Javanese introduced numerous consonant clusters, Dutch also contributed to their acceptance, introducing initial clusters, as in stabil (stable) and skripsi (thesis), and medial clusters as in pabrik (factory) and doktrin (doctrine). Medial clusters of even four consonants have been introduced, as in eksplorasi (exploration).

(to be continued)

The Correlation between The Students’ Needs in Learning English Writing and The English Test Result (INTRODUCTION)

The Correlation between The Students’ Needs in Learning English Writing and The English Test Result (INTRODUCTION)
 

Image: www.theage.com.au

Written by Ari Julianto


A. Background of the Study
In Indonesia, students in primary school to university level have to learn English. In one’s process of thinking, language plays an important thing, because any kinds of ideas, concepts, views, and desires are manifested through language. With the rapid progress of information and communication technology during recent decades, a vast amount of knowledge has been spreading through the borderless world. In the trend of globalization, the most important language being used among countries, institutions and individuals all over the world is the English language.

In this study, the researcher chose the topic of students’ needs in learning English writing. Every individual has a need that may vary among individuals because needs are essentially objective in nature. In learning English writing, learners or students have some needs and they share other needs common to all people. If these needs are not fulfilled it means the problems of the students in their social life appear.

A number of educators believe that student attitudes and academic success or failure are in large part due to the nature of their relationships in and with the schools problems. It is always helpful to find out about students’ needs, their prior learning experiences, the situations they are likely to use English in and which skills/language items they need to extra practice with. Armed with this information, the teacher can select and create the most appropriate and useful learning materials and activities.

Maslow (1954: 59) stated that we have seen that the chief, principle of organization in human motivational life is the arrangement' of basic needs in a hierarchy of less or greater priority or potency. The chief dynamic principle animating this organization is the emergence in the healthy person of less potent needs upon gratification of the more potent ones.

The physiological needs, when unsatisfied, dominate the organism, pressing all capacities into their service and organizing these capacities so that they may be most efficient in this service.  The principle is the same for the other sets of needs in the hierarchy, i.e., love, esteem, and self•actualization.

Many learning problems are prevented or minimized by matching teaching methods and lesson content to learners’ current aptitude and prior experience. Some learning problems are indeed due to deficits or impairments within students themselves. Westwood (2004: 2) stated that the other essential element of pedagogical knowledge is an awareness of the learning characteristics of the students they teach, including those with special educational needs. Learners have many common characteristics at various ages and stages, but individual learners also differ in many educationally significant ways. Teachers need to understand both the commonalities and the differences in order to meet students’ needs.

Nunan (1999: 150) states that a wide range of instruments and techniques is available for carrying put need analysis. He suggested that the key questions addressed here is what are the skills and linguistic knowledge needed by the students to comprehend and produce language for communicating successfully situations? Moreover,

Nunan (1999: 151) has made a list of questionnaire to be given to the learners or students to find out what they need in learning English. And from the explanation above, the researcher would like to know the correlation between the students’ needs in learning English and the English text result or assessment.

From that reasons, the researcher chose the secondary variable that is the students’ result in English test or assessment as the topic. Assessment is an integral part of the learning and teaching process. It is an ongoing process that aims to promote and improve learning.

Fundamentally, assessment involves both teachers and learners reflecting on assessment data: it should provide learners with appraisal and feedback on their performance in relation to learning objectives, so as to help them to improve on the one hand, and offer teachers information for effective planning and intervention on the other. In light of the pressure students’ needs in learning English, it is not surprising that several studies have found that satisfaction and dissatisfaction on what students’ needs may become one of the influenced factors.

Based on the explanation above, the researcher would like to know the correlation between the students’ needs in learning English writing and their achievement in English. Either students’ needs or English achievement is necessary in developing the process of teaching learning English. Without knowing what the students’ needs, it is impossible for teachers to improve the teaching and learning way.

From the reasons and explanations above, the researcher chose the correlation between the students needs in learning English writing and the students’ result in English text. This topic is considered important since
he students’ in learning English is essential even the need analysis can lead to the change of school system, curriculum and sometimes the government policy in education.

B. Identification of the Study
    The problems of this study are related to the following aspects
1. The students’ needs in learning English writing,
2. The students’ achievement in English test writing,
3. The correlation between the students’ needs in learning English writing and the students’ achievement in English test.

C. The Scope and Limitation
    The scope of this research is to investigate the students’ needs in learning English writing based on Nunan’s questionnaires and the students’ result in English test and the correlation between the students’ needs in learning English writing as a second language and their achievement in English subject lesson in school based on the semester report. As the limitation, this research is limited on the students of junior high school.  

D. Formulation of the Problem
    The problems of this research are formulated as follows
1.    What are the students’ needs in learning English writing?
2.    How is the students’ achievement in learning English?
3.    Is there any correlation between the students’ students’ needs in learning English writing as a second language and the students’ achievement in English test?

E. The Objectives of the Study
    The objectives of this study are
1. to describe the students’ needs in learning English writing,
2. to find out the students’ achievement in English test, and
3. to investigate the correlation between the students’ needs in learning English writing and the students’ achievement in English test.

 F. The Significance of the Research
    The findings of this study are expected to give a contribution to
1. the teachers who teach English especially in junior high school in which the teachers may consider what the students’ need in learning English writing,
2. the students who are facing their need problems in learning English as a second language. By understanding their needs, the students hopefully realize that their needs are sometimes essential for their success in learning English,
3. Moreover, this research hopefully will be expected to be useful for people who would like to observe the students’ problems, needs and their achievement in English test. By knowing this, they can understand the correlation between the students’ needs and the students’ results in English test.

Reference
Maslow. A.H. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row,Publishers , Inc.

Nunan, David. 1999. Second Language Teachng & Learning. Boston: Heinle &Heinl;e Publisher.

Westwood, Peter. 2004. Learning and Learning Difficulties, A handbook for teachers. Sydney: ACER Press.

Introduction to Sample and Sampling

         Introduction to Sample and Sampling


Written by Christopher Burgess in Valid Analytical Methods and Procedures.Royal Society of Chemistry. 2000.pp. 15-19


1 Introduction
The importance of sampling in method validation and, in particular, intercomparison of methods cannot be over emphasised. If the test portion is not representative of the original material, it will not be possible to relate the analytical result measured to that in the original material, no matter how good the analytical method is nor how carefully the analysis is performed. It is essential that the laboratory sample is taken from a homogeneous bulk sample as a collaborator who reports an outlying value may claim receipt of a defective laboratory sample.

It is important to understand that sampling is always an error generating process and that although the reported result may be dependent upon the analytical method, it will always be dependent upon the sampling process. The essential question in the inter-comparison of analytical methods is, ‘If the same sample (or a set of identical aliquots of a sample) is analysed by the same method in different laboratories, are the results obtained the same within the limits of experimental error?’. It is apparent, therefore, that the selection of an appropriate sample or samples is critical to this question and that the sampling stage should be carried out by a skilled sampler with an understanding of the overall context of the analysis and trial.

Any evaluation procedure must cover the range of sample types for which the method under investigation is suitable, and details of its applicability in terms of sample matrix and concentration range must be made clear. Similarly, any restrictions in the applicability of the technique should be documented in the method. In particular, Crosby and Patel’s General Princbles of Good Sampling Practice and Prichard provide readily digestible guidance to current best practices in this area.

2. What is a sample?
The Commission on Analytical Nomenclature of the Analytical Chemistry Division of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry has pointed out that confusion and ambiguity can arise around the use of the term ‘sample’ and recommends that its use is confined to its statistical concept. When being used to describe the material under analysis, the term should be qualified by the use of ‘laboratory sample’ or ‘test sample’, for example.

One of the best treatments of sampling terminology is given in recommendations published by IUPAC’ which describes the terms used in the sampling of bulk or packaged goods. In this example, the sampling procedure reduces the original consignment through lots or batches, increments, primary or gross samples, composite or
aggregate samples, subsamples or secondary samples to a laboratory sample. The laboratory sample, if heterogeneous, may be further sample is deemed to be the end of the sampling procedure.

Once received into the laboratory the laboratory samples or test samples will be recorded and then be subjected to analytical operations, beginning with the measuring out of a test portion and proceeding through various operations to the final measurement and reporting of results/findings.

The problems associated with sampling in many areas of chemical testing have been addressed and methods have been validated and published. Where specific methods are not available, the analytical chemist should rely upon experience or adapt methods from similar applications.When in doubt, the material of interest and any samples taken from it should always be treated as heterogeneous.

It is important when documenting a sampling procedure to ensure that all of the terms are clearly defined, so that the procedure will be clear to other users. The use of sampling plans may be appropriate and guidance is available for procedures based upon attributes or variables.

Lebih Jauh Mengenai Penelitian Eksperimen

Lebih Jauh Mengenai Penelitian Eksperimen
                       
                          Written by Ari Julianto

 



I. Pengertian
Umumnya penelitian eksperimen (experimental research) diartikan sebagai suatu penelitian yang meneliti pengaruh perlakuan terhadap perilaku yang timbul sebagai akibat perlakuan sebagaimana Alsa (2004) menyatakan. Sejalan dengan itu, Borg & Gall (1983), menyatakan bahwa penelitian eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang paling dapat diandalkan keilmiahannya (paling valid), karena dilakukan dengan pengontrolan secara ketat terhadap variabel-variabel pengganggu di luar yang dieksperimenkan.

Manurut Hadi (1985) penelitian eksperimen adalah riset atau penelitian yang dilakukan untuk mengetahui akibat yang ditimbulkan dari suatu perlakuan yang diberikan secara sengaja oleh peneliti. Selanjutnya, Sugiyono (2011) mengatakan bahwa metode eksperimen adalah metode penelitian yang digunakan untuk mencari pengaruh perlakuan tertentu terhadap yang lain dalam kondisi yang terkendalikan. Menurut Sukardi (2011), penelitian eksperimen dalam bidang pendidikan dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu penelitian di dalam laboratorium dan di luar laboratorium.

Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, Latipun (2002) mengemukakan bahwa penelitian eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang dilakukan dengan melakukan manipulasi yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui akibat manipulasi terhadap perilaku individu yang diamati. Penelitian eksperimen pada prisipnya dapat didefinisikan sebagai metode sistematis guna membangun hubungan yang mengandung fenomena sebab akibat (causal-effect relationship).

Sehubungan dengan subjek dalam pendidikan adalah siswa, penelitian yang paling banyak dilakukan adalah di luar laboratorium. Hal ini dikarenakan terdapat beberapa keunggulan yang dimiliki oleh penelitian di luar laboratorium, diantaranya:
1. variabel eksperimen dapat lebih kuat;
2. lebih mudah dalam memberikan perlakuan;
3. dapat melakukan setting yang mendekati keadaan sebenarnya; dan
4. hasil eksperimen lebih aktual.

Selain itu, penelitian eksperimen juga lebih cocok dilakukan dalam bidang pendidikan. Hal ini dikarenakan dua alasan sebagai berikut:
1. metode pengajaran yang lebih tepat disetting secara alami dan dikomparasikan di dalam keadaan yang
tidak bias;
2. penelitian dasar dengan tujuan menurunkan  prinsip umum teoritis ke dalam ilmu terapan yang sesuai dengan permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh sekolah

II. Karakteristik Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Ary (1985), ada tiga karakteristik penting dalam
1. Variabel bebas yang dimanipulasi
2. Variabel lain yang berpengaruh dikontrol agar tetap konstan
3. Observasi langsung oleh peneliti

Karakteristik lainnya adalah:
1. Metode eksperimen merupakan satu-satunya metode penelitian yang dianggap paling dapat menguji hipotesis hubungan sebab-akibat, atau paling dapat memenuhi validitas internal.
2. Metode eksperimen merupakan rancangan penelitian yang memberikan pengujian hipotesis yang paling ketat dibanding jenis penelitian yang lain.
3. Metode eksperimen merupakan penelitian yang digunakan untuk mencari pengaruh perlakuan tertentu terhadap dampaknya dalam kondisi yang terkendalikan.

Ciri khas yang membedakan penelitian eksperimen dengan penelitian yang lain:
a. Satu atau lebih variabel bebas dimanipulasi (kondisinya dibuat berbeda, misal: treatment dan non-treatment)
b. Semua variabel lainnya, kecuali variabel perlakuan (variabel bebas), dikendalikan (dipertahankan tetap).
c. Pengaruh manipulasi variabel bebas (pemberian perlakuan) terhadap variabel terikat diamati, dengan asumsi karena diberi perlakuan yang berbeda maka akan berdampak yang berbeda pula.
d. Adanya komparasi, sehingga perlu penyamaan antara kelompok yang akan dikenai perlakuan dengan kelompok yang tidak dikenai perlakuan (dua kelompok yang akan dibandingkan tersebut harus komparabel).

III. Tujuan Penelitian Eksperimen
Untuk meneliti pengaruh dari suatu perlakuan tertentu terhadap gejala suatu kelompok tertentu dibanding dengan kelompok lain yang menggunakan perlakuan yang berbeda. Selanjutnya, tindakan di dalam eksperimen disebut treatment, dan diartikan sebagai semua tindakan, semua variasi atau pemberian kondisi yang akan dinilai/diketahui pengaruhnya. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan menilai tidak terbatas pada mengukur atau melakukan deskripsi atas pengaruh treatment yang dicobakan tetapi juga ingin menguji sampai seberapa besar tingkat signifikansinya (kebermaknaan atau berarti tidaknya) pengaruh tersebut jika dibandingkan dengan kelompok yang sama tetapi diberi perlakuan yang berbeda.

IV. Syarat-syarat Penelitian Eksperimen
Wilhelm Wundt dalam Alsa (2004) mengemukakan syarat-syarat sebagai berikut:
1. peneliti harus dapat menentukan secara sengaja kapan dan di mana ia akan melakukan penelitian;
2. penelitian terhadap hal yang sama harus dapat diulang dalam kondisi yang sama;
3. peneliti harus dapat memanipulasi (mengubah, mengontrol) variabel yang diteliti sesuai dengan yang dikehendakinya;
4. diperlukan kelompok pembanding (control group) selain kelompok yang diberi perlakukan (experimental group).

V. Proses Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Gay (1982) prosesnya antara lain:
1. Permasalahan yang signifikan untuk diteliti.
2. Pemilihan subjek yang cukup untuk dibagi dalam kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol.
3. Pembuatan atau pengembangan instrumen.
4. Pemilihan desain penelitian.
5. Eksekusi prosedur.
6. Melakukan analisis data.
7. Memformulasikan simpulan.

VI. Bentuk-bentuk Desain Penelitian Eksperimen
Menurut Sugiyono (2011) terdapat beberapa bentuk desain eksperimen, yaitu:
1. pre-experimental (nondesign) yang meliputi
a. one-shot case study
Ini dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan kekuatan pengukuran dan nilai ilmiah suatu desain penelitian.

                       X                                                                        O
Perlakuan terhadap variabel independen  Pengamatan atau pengukuran terhadap variabel dependen
(Treatment of independent variable)     (Observation or measurement of dependent variable)

b. One group pretestposttest
Perbedaan dengan desain pertama adalah, untuk the one group pretest-posttest design, terdapat pretest sebelum diberi perlakuan, hasil perlakuan dapat diketahui dengan lebih akurat, karena dapat membandingkan dengan keadaan sebelum diberi perlakuan.

                    O1                                                      X                                        O2
                Pretest                                             Treatment                               Posttest

Pengaruh perlakuan: O1 – O2.

c. the static-group comparison.
Ini menggunakan satu group yang dibagi menjadi dua, yang satu memperoleh stimulus eksperimen (yang diberi perlakuan) dan yang lain tidak mendapatkan stimulus apapun sebagai alat kontrol. Masalah yang akan muncul dalam desain ini adalah meyangkut resiko penyeleksian terhadap subjek yang akan diteliti. Oleh karena itu, grup tersebut harus dipilih secara acak.

                                  X                                                             O1
                                 __________________________________                                                                                                  O2
O1: hasil pengukuran satu grup yang diberi perlakuan, dan
O2: hasil pengukuran satu grup yang tidak diberi perlakuan.
Pengaruh perlakuan: O1 – O2.

2. true-experimental
Ini mempunyai ciri utama yaitu sampel yang digunakan untuk eksperimen maupun sebagai kelompok kontrol diambil secara random dari populasi tertentu. Atau dengan kata lain dalam true experiments pasti ada kelompok kontrol dan pengambilan sampel secara random.

a. pretest-posttes control group design
Dalam desain ini terdapat dua grup yang dipilih secara random kemudian diberi pretest untuk mengetahui perbedaan keadaan awal antara group eksperimen dan group kontrol.

                          R                          O1                          X                           O2
                          R                          O3                                                        O4
Pengaruh perlakuan adalah: (O2 - O1) - (O4 - O3).

b. posttest-only control group design
Dalam desain ini terdapat dua kelompok yang masing-masing dipilih secara random (R). Grup pertama diberi perlakuan (X) dan grup yang lain tidak.

                R                        X                           O1
                R                                                      O2

3. factorial experimental
Desain merupakan modifikasi dari design true experimental, yaitu dengan memperhatikan kemungkinan adanya variabel moderator yang mempengaruhi perlakuan terhadap hasil. Semua grup dipilih secara random kemudian diberi pretest. Grup yang akan digunakan

untuk penelitian dinyatakan baik jika setiap kelompok
memperoleh nilai pretest yang sama.

4. Quasi experimental
Quasiexperiments disebut juga dengan eksperimen pura-pura. Bentuk desain ini merupakan pengembangan dari trueexperimental design yang sulit dilaksanakan.
Desain ini mempunyai variabel kontrol tetapi tidak digunakan sepenuhnya untuk mengontrol variabel luar yang mempengaruhi pelaksanaan eksperimen.
Bentuk-bentuk quasiexperiments antara lain:
a. Time Series Design
Ciri desain ini adalah grup yang digunakan tidak dapat dipilih secara random.
b. Nonequivalent control group design
Desain ini hampir sama dengan pretest-posttest control group design, tetapi pada desain ini group eksperimen maupun group kontrol tidak dipilih secara random.


Referensi
Alsa, Asmadi. 2004. Pendekatan Kuantitatif Kualitatif dalam Penelitian Psikologi.Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Ary, D., Jacob, L.C. and Razavieh, A. 1985. Introduction to Research in Education.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gay, L.R. 1983. Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application. Ohio: A Bell & Howell Company.
Hadi, Sutrisno. 1985. Metodologi Research Jilid 4. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Penerbit Fakultas Psikologi UGM.
Latipun. 2002 Psikologi Eksperimen. Malang: UMM Press.
Sukardi. 2011. Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan Kompetensi dan Praktiknya.Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara.

Dan berbagai sumber lainnya.

Reduplication in Bahasa Indonesia

     Reduplication in Bahasa Indonesia

Written by James N. Sneddon in Indonesian Reference Grammar. Australia: Allen & Unwin.2008. pp.18-25


I. Full reduplication
Simple words (or free bases), complex words (consisting of an affix or more than one affix plus base) and the bases of complex words can be fully reduplicated. Full reduplication involves repeating the entire word. The resulting two bases or words are separated by a hyphen in writing. The second base or word is treated as the reduplicated part.



Examples of reduplicated free bases are buku-buku, tinggitinggi, duduk-duduk.
Examples of reduplicated complex words are perubahanperubahan (from base ubah), tulisan-tulisan (from base tulis).
Examples of reduplicated bases within a complex word are kemerah-merahan (from base merah), berkali-kali (from base kali), sebesar-besarnya (from base besar), melihat-lihat (from base lihat).

Full reduplication has many functions. Sometimes reduplication of bases cannot be discussed separately from a consideration of the affixes with which it occurs. For instance, the function of the reduplication of the bases in kuda-kudaan ‘toy horse’ and sebesar-besarnya ‘as big as possible’ is dependent on the particular combination of base and affix and cannot be described free from the overall forms in which it occurs. Such reduplication is discussed under the individual affixes. On the other hand, most full reduplication of words, whether simple or complex, and of some bases in complex words can be described free from a consideration of the particular affixes accompanying it.

II. Reduplication without corresponding single bases
Sometimes reduplicated forms have no unreduplicated counterparts to which they can be related. Such forms are often treated as single bases in dictionaries, although usually written with a hyphen. Such forms include laba-laba ‘spider’, tiba-tiba ‘suddenly’, sia-sia ‘futile’, pura-pura ‘pretend’, megap-megap ‘pant’, masing-masing ‘each’. Although single bases with the same form sometimes occur, these are chance similarities.

Thus the word tiba ‘arrive’ has no relationship (at least in modern Indonesian) to tiba-tiba ‘suddenly’. Some nouns consisting of repeated forms and are thus single bases. Many of these words are names of plants and animals, types of food and instruments, although such formations are not confined to these categories: cumi-cumi ‘squid’, kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’, alangalang ‘tall grass species’, koma-koma ‘saffron’, gado-gado ‘mixed vegetable dish’, ani-ani ‘small harvest knife’, oleh-oleh ‘gift’.
Sometimes a reduplicated form refers to something having two or more similar parts; a single base rarely or never occurs: paruparu ‘lungs’, baling-baling ‘propeller’, anting-anting ‘earring’.

Reduplication may produce a meaning which is different but nevertheless related to the meaning of the single base. Dictionaries inconsistently list such reduplicated forms under the single base or as separate entries. Such forms include:
gula sugar gula-gula sweets
laki husband laki-laki man
mata eye mata-mata spy
kuda horse kuda-kuda easel; trestle
langit sky langit-langit ceiling

In a few cases, such words can also indicate plurality. Thus kuda-kuda ‘horses’, mata-mata rantai ‘links of a chain’. The major function of noun reduplication is to indicate plurality. Both simple and complex nouns can be reduplicated to indicate plurality: piring-piring ‘plates’, rumah-rumah ‘houses’, singkatan-singkatan ‘abbreviations’, perubahan-perubahan ‘changes’.

III. Reduplication of Noun
A noun is not usually reduplicated unless it is unclear from context whether one or more than one is referred to and then only if this is important to what the speaker wishes to convey. In the first example below the number makes plurality specific, while in the second sentence plurality is clear from the general context; one does not usually buy a single shoe:
Menteri mengunjungi tiga negeri asing.
The minister visited three foreign countries.
Saya harus membeli sepatu baru.
I must buy new shoes.

Sometimes, however, a speaker does use reduplication eventhough plurality is clear from context:
Pulau-pulau Bali, Lombok dan Sumbawa terletak di sebelah timur pulau Jawa.
The islands of Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa are located east of Java.

Reduplication does not occur if a whole class of things is referred to. Neither noun in the following sentence can be reduplicated: Anjing suka tulang. 'Dogs like bones'. It is sometimes stated that reduplication of nouns indicates variety rather than plurality (although plurality is implied by variety). Indonesian writers disagree on this question, but clearly reduplication can be used where variety is of no importance.

In the following sentences there is no focus at all on variation among the mango trees, links of the chain or water containers; what is stressed is that there is more than one:
Rumahnya dekat pohon-pohon mangga itu.
His house is near those mango trees.
Mata-mata rantai berbentuk bulat.
The links of the chain are round.
Pada pinggangnya terikat bumbung-bumbung kosong.
At his waist are tied empty bamboo water containers.

Reduplication is not normally used in reference to things which come in pairs, such as certain body parts. Where it is felt necessary to indicate plurality in such cases, belah ‘half; one of something which comes in a pair’ is usually used. When a noun is followed by a modifying noun, usually only the head noun is reduplicated:
buku-buku sejarah history books
toko-toko buku bookshops

There is sometimes disagreement among Indonesians as towhether or not a noun and modifying noun should both be repeated; in some common combinations either the head noun alone is repeated or both are, speakers differing as to what is acceptable; thus: surat-surat kabar or surat kabar-surat kabar ‘newspapers’.

When a noun and a following possessive noun both refer to more than one, it is often possible to repeat either noun:
Sebutkanlah nama-nama universitas yang termasuk SKALU.
Sebutkanlah nama universitas-universitas yang termasuk SKALU.
Give the names of the universities in SKALU.

IV. Reduplication of Pronoun 
The following personal pronouns can be reduplicated: saya ‘I’, kami ‘we (exclusive)’, kita ‘we (inclusive)’, kamu ‘you’, beliau ‘he, she (respectful)’ and mereka ‘they’. For all these except mereka, reduplication usually  has a be littling or disparaging connotation:
Mengapa hanya saya-saya yang selalu diberi tugas yang berat ini?
Why is it always poor old me who gets these hard jobs?
Jangan berbuat gaduh di sini, beliau-beliau sedang rapat!
Don’t be noisy, the big shots are having a meeting!

For mereka, reduplication conveys emphasis; the pronoun  is usually followed by a relative clause introduced by yang:  
Mereka-mereka yang belum terdaftar harap lekas mendaftarkan diri.
Those who aren’t enrolled yet should enrol as soon as possible.

V. Reduplication of adjectives
Reduplication of an adjective usually occurs when the noun it describes is plural; reduplication indicates that the characteristic indicated by the adjective applies to all the objects:
sekitar 230 pulau yang kecil-kecil ukurannya
about 230 small islands
hutan-rimba yang pohonnya tinggi-tinggi sekali
a forest whose trees are very tall
Gambarmu bagus-bagus.
Your drawings are beautiful.

A reduplicated adjective can occur alone, functioning like a concessive clause introduced by meskipun:
Kecil-kecil, si Ali sudah pacaran.
Although young, Ali already has a girlfriend.
Sakit-sakit, dia pergi juga ke sekolah.
Although sick, he still went to school.
Reduplicated adjectives can function as adverbs:
Anak itu berteriak keras-keras.
The child screamed loudly.

VI. Reduplication of verbs
Unlike complex nouns, complex verbs only undergo full reduplication of the base; that is, bases are repeated and affixes then attached to them. There are several functions.With some verbs reduplication gives a connotation of action done in a casual or leisurely way:
duduk sit duduk-duduk sit about berjalan walk
berjalan-jalan walk about, go for a stroll
melihat see melihat-lihat browse, have a look around
membuka open membuka-buka (buku) leaf through (a book)

With many verbs reduplication indicates continued action, either an action done over a period of time or an action performed repeatedly:
Bu Yem mengurut-urut rambut anaknya.
Mrs Yem stroked her child’s hair (a number of times).
Potongan kayu itu terapung-apung di atas air.
The piece of wood fl oated on the water.
Dia berteriak-teriak minta tolong.
He shouted and shouted for help.
Menteri menunda-nunda keberangkatannya.
The minister kept delaying his departure.

With some verbs reduplication gives a meaning somewhat different from that of the single form, usually conveying a sense of intensity:
menjadi become menjadi-jadi get worse
meminta request meminta-minta beg
membesarkan enlarge membesar-besarkan exaggerate
berganti replace berganti-ganti alternate, keep changing places

Accompanied by tidak ‘not’ reduplication of the verb can indicate that the action has not occurred, usually implying that this is contrary to expectation:
Sudah dua hari Pak Tanto tidak muncul-muncul.
Mr Tanto hasn’t turned up for two days now.
Mereka tidak menyinggung-nyinggung masalah itu di rapat kemarin.
They just didn’t mention the matter in the meeting yesterday.
A few verbs, including datang ‘come’, bangun ‘wake up’, pulang ‘arrive home’, can be reduplicated to function like correlative clauses introduced by begitu ‘no sooner’ :
Bangun-bangun mereka sudah bertengkar.
No sooner were they awake than they began to argue.

VII. Reduplication of numbers
Reduplication of numbers forms adverbs meaning ‘in a group of so many’:
Bicaralah satu-satu.
Speak one at a time.
Mereka masuk dua-dua.
They came in two at a time.
The numbers can also be separated by demi or per.
Numbers for ‘two’ to ‘four’ can also occur with prefix ber-.

VIII. Partial reduplication
Partial reduplication occurs only with bases which begin with a consonant. It involves placing before the base a syllable consisting of the fi rst consonant of the base followed by e. This type of reduplication is no longer productive in the language; it occurs with a few bases, mainly nouns, and cannot be applied to others. The reduplicated word has a meaning which is the same as that of the single form or is related to it. Sometimes, as in the first example below, the historical relationship is not obvious:
tangga ladder tetangga neighbour
jaka bachelor jejaka bachelor
laki husband lelaki man
luhur noble leluhur ancestors
tamu guest tetamu guests
tapi but tetapi but

IX. Imitative reduplication
In imitative reduplication the two parts of the word are not identical, though they are similar. Nouns, adjectives and verbs can all undergo imitative reduplication. The variation between the two parts of the word can involve either consonants or vowels. Imitative reduplication is not productive; new forms cannot be created, nor can the two parts of the word change places. Frequently only the first component of the word occurs as a simple word. In some cases, neither part can occur alone. The reduplication usually indicates variety or emphasises the meaning of the first component. Imitative reduplication is not greatly different from some types of compounding and could alternatively be placed in that category.The difference may be only the first consonant:
sayur-mayur ‘vegetables’ (sayur ‘vegetable’), lauk-pauk ‘side dishes’ (lauk ‘side dish’), ramah-tamah ‘hospitable and friendly’ (ramah ‘friendly’). Some combinations may be considered as instances of imitative reduplication, although they actually consist of two existing independent parts, such as cerai-berai ‘scattered, dispersed’ (cerai ‘separated’, berai ‘dispersed’) and kaya-raya ‘very wealthy’ (kaya ‘rich’, raya ‘great’).

The difference may be in the vowels. There may be only one vowel difference: desas-desus ‘rumour’, warna-warni ‘all kinds of colours’ (warna ‘colour’), gerak-gerik ‘movements, gestures’(gerak ‘movement’). Usually there are two vowel differences. It is most common for the first component to contain the vowels o…a and the second component to contain the vowels a…i, although these are not the only combinations. Often, with this type of imitative reduplication, neither part of the word can occur alone: bolakbalik ‘to and fro’ (balik ‘return’), pontang-panting ‘run helter skelter’, obrak-abrik ‘destroy, smash to pieces’, mundar-mandir ‘back and forth’, tindak-tanduk ‘behaviour’ (tindak ‘action’), asal-usul ‘origin, descent’ (asal ‘origin’), teka-teki ‘riddle’.