Case Study Method

             Case Study Method

written by
-Kumar Singh, Yogesh. 2006. Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistic, Mumbai: New Age International Publisher.pp. 147-153.

Image source: www.spikescavell.com

Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study leads to very novel idea and no longer limited to the particular individual. In case study investigator tries to collect the bits in support of proposition. One case study if we take specific than prediction value is less while if the case is the representative sample then it has high  prediction value. Case study methodological is not longitudinal study but it depends on the methods of information about the individual as far as possible.

Therefore, case study is conducted only for specific case. It requires personal observation, by or objective method. Actually case study means a study in depth. Here depth means to explore all peculiarities of case. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It gives a detailed knowledge about the phenomena and not able to generalize beyond the knowledge. In physical science every unit is the true representative of the population, but in education and the units may not be true representative of the population. There are individual differences as well as intra- individual differences. Therefore, prediction can not be made on the basis of knowledge. No statistical inferences can be drawn from the exploration of a phenomenon.

Here case does not necessarily mean an individual. Case means an unit, it may be an institution or a nation, or religion or may be an individual or a concept. Thus, case study refers to
• Close study of an unit,
• Deep study,
• Cumulative study, and
• Clinical study.

The case study is mostly done in police inquiry to investigate the case. The purpose is to find out the facts about the case so that true culprit would be punished. In research case study has entirely different purpose. The main purpose of case study is the development of case on the basis diagnosis which is done on the post records of the case. It establishes the cause and effect of relationship.

I. OBJECTIVES OF CASE STUDY
The case study has the following four main objectives:
1. Clinical purpose, (dealing with a patient).
2. Diagnostic purpose, (educational situation to provide the remedial instruction to poor students).
3. Fact-findings about psychological or educational problems.
4. Supplementing other information. It may be a follow up work. Phases of Case Study.

II. A Case Study is Conducted into Three Phases
1. Retrospective phase refers to the past records of the case completely which is used in diagnosing the case.
2. Prospective phase refers to the present status of the case, which is helpful in understanding the case. The suggestions and remediation can be offered to the case.
3. Conspective phase refers to the future development and improvement of the case which is also employed to examine the effects of the remediation given to the case.

III. TYPES OF CASE STUDY
Six types of case studies are conducted which are as follows:
1. A group or a community case study,
2. Casual comparative studies,
3. Activity analysis.
4. Content or document analysis,
5. A follow-up study, and
6. Trend studies.

IV. CRITERIA FOR A GOOD CASE STUDY
The essential characteristics of a satisfactory case study include continuity, completeness of data, validity of data, confidential recording and synthesis that is scientific.
1. Continuity
There should be desirable continuity of information provided by two successive psychological examinations at any internal of a year, and by an elementary school record in relation to performance in high school.
 
2. Completeness of Data
In so far as possible, the potential range of data or information includes symptoms, examination results, (psycho-physical, health, educational and mentality) and history (health, school, family and school).

3. Validity of Data
A doubtful birth data may be verified through the Bureau of vital statistics, and employment record by
reference to employers.

4. Confidential Recording
Educational workers have something to learn from medicine with respect to the confidential nature of
professional records, the difficulties of individual teachers or pupils in relation to discipline, failure, achievement or mentality should be recorded as professional problems to be treated in a confidential
manner.

5. Scientific Synthesis
This is an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere enumeration of data secured, it embraces diagnosis in identifying casual factor, and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedure.
If a case-study have all these characteristics, it will be an excellent study.

V. SOURCES OF CASE DATA
1. Personal Documents: Diaries, autobiographies, memoirs, letters, confession, etc.
2. Life history records.
3. Related Persons: Parents, neighbours, friends, teachers, etc.
4. Official Records: Baby books, school records, police courts, military organizations, clubs, institutions, etc.
5. The subject himself.

These sources have been defined in the following paras briefly.
1. Personal Documents
These possess the events of life of the subject and his reactions to them. They also represent a community of experience which helps to illuminate the writers’ personality, social reactions, and philosophy of life.

2. Life Histories
It is a combination of facts and events. Because of thin aid in studying complex behaviour and situations in scientific detail, Burgess refers to the life history as “the social microscope”. Life history data are generally gathered through prolonged interviews.

3. Related Persons
Here with the altogether different of view of the informers, the different aspects of the subjects’ life are attacked. Here ‘trait acquaintancy’ should be in the persons. Also, here chances of biases and misinterpretations are high, and it is the discriminating power of the researcher acting as a serve in separating the biased and factual facts.

4. Official Records
Most of the social and academic life is got from the official records.

5. Subject Himself
Sometimes of the patient or the subject may serve as the major source of data. But, however, here reliability of information is very low.

VI. THE STEPS OF CASE STUDY
If it is to be accepted as a scientific technique, the case study must follow essentially the same steps and meet essentially the same criteria as do the other research methods. On the other hand, it presents a number of problems which are relatively unique, either in kind or in degree. These are probably best considered in connection with the steps through which such a study must proceed. The following are the steps in the case study
Step 1 : Status of the Situation or Unit of Attention.
Step 2 : Collection of Data, Examination and History.
Step 3 : Diagnosis and Identification of Casual Factors.
Step 4 : Adjustment, Treatment and Therapy.
Step 5 : Follow up Programme.

Academic Writing

                           Academic Writing

                                Written by Ari Julianto


A. Academic writing should be
1. Analytic
concerned with real facts and details, rather than general aspects.

2. Objective
based on things which can be seen or measured, rather than on personal feelings.

3. Intellectual
based on an enlightened judgement of complex ideas and information, rather than an appeal to emotions.

4. Rational
using clear thinking to make decisions and judgements based on reason, rather than passionate arguments against a doctrine or belief.


B. The language of academic writing
Some of the main characteristics of the language of academic writing include:
- Frequent use of passive verb forms;
- Impersonal pronouns and phrases;
- Qualifying words and phrases;
- Complex sentence structures;
- Specialised vocabulary, style and presentation.

C. Style of academic writing
Academic writing has a characteristic style:
- It is serious, rather than conversational;
- It is impersonal, rather than personal;
- It is formal, rather than colloquial.

D. Presentation of information in academic writing
Information is presented in recognisable sequences:
For example, events are recorded in chronological order (from earliest to most recent); Points are made and expanded through examples;
Points are arranged hierarchically in ascending or descending order;Details or outcomes are compared or contrasted.

THE USE OF TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENT IN INCREASING THE STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN WRITING NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH

THE USE OF TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENT IN INCREASING THE STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN WRITING NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH

                           Written by 
                          Ari Julianto


A. The Background of the Study
English language, as we have known, has become an international language used all over the world besides some other languages. In Indonesia itself, English is regarded as a foreign language. Students in primary school to university level have to learn this language. In one’s process of thinking, language plays an important thing, because any kinds of ideas, concepts, views, and desires are manifested through language.

As we know, writing is one of the English skills in school. In teaching and learning a foreign language, writing is very helpful for the students to learn a language because it provides many advantages, such as: writing reinforce, grammar, structure, idiom, and vocabulary. Therefore, the students have chances to be adventurous with the language to express ideas and constant use of eyes and brain in a unique way to reinforce a new language.

A short reflection should convince the students that they think about many things and a solution to the problem will be found at last in an examination of what they already have in mind. The purpose of writing paragraph is the students can write what their want to write based on what they think.

The researcher chose the topic of writing by considering that based on the experience in teaching English that some of the students have several problems in writing paragraph. There were 30% of the students who still did not know how to write narrative paragraph. The problems are they do not have any media as an inspiration for their writing. Besides, they still have no idea what kind of writing they must chose in writing a paragraph.

Reeves (1998: 1) stated that there are two major approaches to using media and technology in schools. First, students can learn “from” media and technology, and second, they can learn “with” media and technology. Learning “from” media and technology is often referred to in terms such as instructional television, computer-based instruction, or integrated learning systems. Learning “with” technology is referred to in terms such as cognitive tools and constructivist learning environments.

One of the media is television. Most all children like to imitate what they watch especially the words appear in television. Students sometimes repeat the words in television especially through advertisement. Advertisement is broadcasted over and over each time for commercial break. Children or students sometimes do not want to miss this commercial break of advertisement.

Advertisements, as a public notice or announcement, usually paid for, as of thing for sale, needs, etc. Agustrijanto (2002: 7) points out “Advertisement is each from of communication that has intended to motivate, to promote a product at a service to someone, the potential buyers”. This influenced and wins the public’s opinion to think and take measures in accordance with the wish of the advertiser.

From the explanation of the advertisement, generally advertisement is defined as non personal communication of information usually paid for and persuade in nature about products, services, or ideas be identified sponsor through various media. In advertisement, there are many multimedia terms to represent their needs. Through advertisement, students can express what they remember in writing. From writing we can obtain the students’ ability in understanding the message of the advertisement.

Writing a narrative text by using a TV advertisement can be an interesting lesson for the students because they can explore what they want to write in their mind based what they remember by watching advertisement. Regardless of the approach, media and technology have been introduced into schools because it is believed that they can have positive effects on teaching and learning.

Based on the previous explanation, the researcher would like to analyze the students’ ability in writing narrative paragraph based on the use of TV advertisement. The reasons for choosing this topic are as follows
1. TV advertisement is one of media can improve the students’ ability in learning language especially writing, Kozma (1991: 9),
2. Students sometimes take an example from what they watch in their daily lives,
3. Students can explore what they watch and remember by writing a narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement.

B. The Identification of the Problems
The problems of this study are identified as follows:
1. the improvement of students’ writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement,
2. the students’ behavior when they study narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement.

C. The Scope and Limitation
This research is focused on the use of TV advertisement in teaching narrative paragraph especially the students’ ability and disability in writing narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement broadcasted in Indonesia. There are many advertisements and in this research, the researcher only chose the advertisement appeared in television. In television, the researcher chose the educational advertisement and that is why the kind of food advertisement Mie Sedap as the object of this research. Meanwhile, the subjects of this research are the first year (X) of SMAN Negeri ............of academic year 20../20... In this case, the students have to watch the Mie Sedap advertisement at home or by video clip in handphone for many times

D. The Formulation of the Study
The problems of this study were formulated as follows
1.  does the use of TV advertisement improve the students’ ability in writing narrative paragraph?
 2.  how do the students behave when they study narrative paragraph through TV advertisement?

E. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. to describe the students’ improvement in writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement,
2. to find out the students’ behavior in writing narrative paragraph by using TV advertisement.

F. The Significance of the Study
It is expected that the results of this study will be useful for:
1. the university students who would like to write a narrative paragraph based on TV advertisement,
2. contribution of the teachers/lecturers who would like to know the students’ ability in writing a narrative paragraph,
3.    other researcher who are interested in writing based on TV advertisement, and finally
4. the high school students who would like to improve their ability in writing a narrative paragraph.


References
Agustrijanto. 2002. Copy Writing. Bandung: Rosda Karya.

Kozma, R.B. 1991. Learning with Media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179-212. University of Michigan.

Reeves, Thomas C, 1998, The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools, Georgia: The University of Georgia.

Two Types of Hypothesis

                    Two Types of Hypothesis
 


 Written by John W. Creswell in Educational Research, Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston: Pearson.2012.pp. 126-129.


There are two types of hypotheses: the null and the alternative to the null. You need both types in a research study, but authors generally write only one or the other into their reports.


1. Null Hypotheses
The null hypothesis is the most traditional form of writing a hypothesis. Null hypotheses make predictions that of all possible people whom researchers might study (i.e., called the general population), there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables or no difference between groups of an independent variable or a dependent variable.

To study this hypothesis, you would select a sample of all possible people and draw conclusions from the statistical analysis of this sample for the population. A null hypothesis might begin with the phrase “There is no difference between” groups or “There is no relationship between (or among)” variables.

To write a hypothesis, you can complete the following script, which employs the language “no difference”:
There is no difference between (independent variable, group 1 ) and (independent variable, group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for (participants) at (research site).
An example of the application of this script might be:

There is no difference between at-risk and non-at-risk  students in terms of student achievement on math test scores for third-grade students in a Midwest school district.
Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers) Dependent variable: student achievement test scores Participants: third-grade students
Site: X school district
Form and language: null indicating no difference

2. Alternative Hypotheses
In contrast to the null hypothesis, you may write an alternative hypothesis. You will use an alternative hypothesis if you think there will be a difference based on results from past research or an explanation or theory reported in the literature.

The two types of alternative hypotheses are directional and nondirectional. In a directional alternative hypothesis, the researcher predicts the direction of a change, a difference, or a relationship for variables in the total population of  people. A researcher selects a sample of people from a population and predicts that the scores will be higher,better, or changed in some way. This typical form for writing hypotheses is encountered in the literature more than any other type of hypothesis.

A script for a directional alternative hypothesis is:
(group 1, independent variable) at (research site) will have (some difference, such as higher, lower, greater, lesser) on (dependent variable) than (group 2 of independent variable).
An example of this script is:

Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary schools will have higher achievement scores than students who participate in whole-language learning.
Independent variable: learning (direct and whole language)
Dependent variable: achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Research site: four elementary schools
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied alternative hypothesis the researcher predicts a change, a difference, or a relationship for variables in a population but does not indicate whether the direction of
this prediction will be positive or negative, or greater or less.

The nondirectional alternative is not as popular as the directional alternative because the researcher does not take a stand about the direction of the relationship of the variables. A script for a nondirectional alternative hypothesis is:
There is a difference between (group 1, independent variable) and (group 2, independent variable) in terms of (dependent variable).

An illustration of this script would be:
There is a difference between varsity athletes in high school who smoke and those who do not smoke in terms of athletic accomplishments.In this example, the author does not state whether the difference will be positive or negative. An analysis of the variables in this statement shows:
Independent variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers)
Dependent variable: athletic accomplishments
Participants: varsity athletes
Sites: high schools
Key indicator: the words “a difference,” but the direction is not specified.

The Writing Process

                The Writing Process

Taken from Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing Edited by Dr Natilene Bowker. Massey University. 2007. pp.32.


Writing is a long and winding process. In managing this process, there are certain steps that you can take every time you begin an assignment. These steps will help to maximise your efforts and make meaning out of the chaos and disorder that often appears when first embarking on any assignment.

One of the most comprehensive and sophisticated assignment tasks you will find at university is essay  writing. What follows are some guidelines on how to go about essay writing. However, the steps outlined have general application for almost any other assignment that you will be given.

Think about topic
It is essential that you interpret the topic correctly. This can be achieved by brainstorming to generate ideas, and then formulating a point of view, even if it is a very rough one. Some people have found that reading around the assignment topic, by looking up some of the key words in their course materials and textbooks or glancing through relevant readings in their study guide, is helpful in familiarising themselves with the question.


Research topic
Start your research by reading your study guide, text book, and lecture notes (if lectures are available). Then look in the library, or access the online catalogue, to see if there are other useful materials, but only look at information relevant to the topic. However, to do well in an assignment, it is not always necessary to have references outside your course materials. For 100 level papers, 3-5 references may be enough to do well, as long as you explain the ideas thoroughly and relate them effectively to the essay topic. Sometimes, course co-ordinators may specify the minimum number of references expected in the assignment instructions. Also, remember that you will be marked on what you write, not what you read. So try to look at everything you read in terms of whether it is worthy of summarising on paper. Simply writing something down in your own words will help clarify your understanding of the topic.

Plan your essay
Now that you have made notes and summaries on the essay topic, you should be in a much better position to decide on the type of position or argument you are going to back up or argue in your essay. With your argument in mind, write down the main points that support it. Make sure they are in complete sentences, and arrange them in the order that best supports your stance. These sentences can function as an essay plan. Each sentence represents a paragraph in your essay.

Write your essay
Remember, writing often does not come easily. Be patient and start with getting your ideas down on paper. After the fi rst draft, you can work on refi ning them. If you havealready made summaries and notes, the process of writing your essay may be easier. However, if you are having diffi culty, try writing some headings that are relevant to the essay topic – perhaps they summarise each of the main points you want to make – or perhaps they are just words that have some relevance to the topic.

Under each heading start summarising information from one book or study guide reading. Suspend the need to connect your writing to other readings or parts of the essay. Just write. Trying to control the way your essay will look and its structure early on can waste time because, as you write more and read more, you end up developing groups of information that you can link together due to similar features they have in common.
However, doing this at the beginning is difficult as you cannot see the overall picture since you are just starting out and your knowledge of the essay topic has not had sufficient time to develop. Uncertainty at the beginning is perfectly acceptable and normal. Once you are more familiar with the issues, it becomes easier to work out the main themes or sections and even the order to place them. What is important though is writing down information in your own words, so that you have something to show at the end of your reading and analysis.

Revise your essay
Look over your essay to make sure that you have answered the essay question. Have you stuck to the topic? Have you left out anything vital? You may have to revise your essay several times before it effectively addresses the topic and question. Try to leave yourself at least 24 hours between finishing your first draft and revisions. This will allow you time to distance yourself from the topic and refl ect on it with a critical eye. It is also really useful if you can access someone independent who is not doing the course to have a read over your assignment to see if it makes sense. If they understand it, then your marker should understand it. Take note of anything this external person does not understand, because it may suggest that you need to clarify and explain details further. Providing such extra detail can only reinforce what you know and understand to the marker.

Edit your essay
You should check for errors (punctuation, spelling, grammar), bad sentence structure, jargon, slang etc.Is your presentation OK? Can it be improved? Is the referencing correct?

Principles of Revision

Principles of Revision

Written by Anthony C. Winkler and Jo Ray McCuen-Metherell in Writing the Research Paper, A Handbook. Boston: Wadsworth. 2008.pp. 123-138


1. Rereading your writing

2. Revising the paper from biggest to smallest elements Revising the opening paragraph

3. Revising the introduction

4. Check that your paragraphs follow the sequence of topics in the thesis

5. Revising the body paragraphs

6. Check paragraph transitions

7. Revising sentences for variety and style

8. Revise sentences to use the active voice

9. Revise to use an appropriate point of view

10. Revise sexist language

11. Revising words: Diction

12. Revise diction for accuracy and exactness
13. Revise the overuse of phrases for subjects instead of single nouns

14. Revise redundant expressions

15. Revise meaningless words and phrases

16. Revise snobbish diction

Hints for Developing a Theoretical Framework

Hints for Developing a Theoretical Framework
 

Written by Marilyn K. Simon and Jim Goes. Includes excerpts from Simon (2011), Dissertation and Scholarly Research: Recipes for Success. Seattle, WA: Dissertation Success LLC

1. Examine your title, thesis, topic, research problem, or research questions. In one sentence, what is the concern you are investigating?
Example: Minority students in urban high schools are not doing well on standardized tests in mathematics.

2. Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your research.
Example: Mathphobia, high stakes testing, high school students, unprepared teachers, racism, poor funding, teaching techniques, socio-economic conditions

3. Read and review related current literature on this topic. Conduct a key word search to locate articles related to your topic.

4. Identify germinal and key authors who have advanced this area of inquiry:
Example: Coleman, Freire, Kohn, Oakes, Thomas, Rothstein, Jacobsen, Tobias, Wigfield, Silver….

5. List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. In a quantitative study list the possible DVs and IVs.
Example: Dependent variables: Mathematics Anxiety, Self-efficacy, Socio-economic class, ethnicity, race, teaching philosophies, teaching techniques Independent Variable: Performance on high stakes mathematics tests.

6. Consider how these variables directly relate to the theory. Does the theory or theories provide guidance for how these variables might behave? Explain the connection between the theory and the variables.

7. Revise your search and add the word “theory” to your key words to find the theories and theorist most in line with your thinking.
Example: Critical Race Theory, Constructivism, Social Cognitive Theory

8. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of each theory and point out its’ relevance to your research.
Example: Constructivism holds that learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows and can build prior knowledge and experience known as schema. Because all learning is filtered through pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest that learning is more effective when a student is actively engaged in learning mathematics rather than attempting to receive knowledge passively. A wide variety of methods claim to be based on constructivist learning theory. Most of these methods rely on some form of guided discovery where the teacher limits direct instruction and attempts to lead the student through questions and activities to discover, discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the new knowledge.

Rules for Writers. NOT

Rules for Writers. NOT

Written by Anthony C. Winkler and Jo Ray McCuen-Metherell in Writing the Research Paper, A Handbook. Boston: Wadsworth. 2008. pp. 138
Here is a fun list of the sort of revisions writers most often make in their work. You can use it to guide your hand in revising your paper and to be amused while doing so.



1. Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
2. Prepositions are not words to end sentences with.
3. And don’t start a sentence with a conjunction.
4. It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.
5. Avoid clichés like the plague. (They’re old hat.)
6. Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.
7. Be more or less specific.
8. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are (usually) unnecessary.
9. Also too, never, ever use repetitive redundancies.
10. No sentence fragments.
11. Contractions aren’t necessary and shouldn’t be used.
12. Foreign words and phrases are not apropos.
13. Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary; it’s highly superfl uous.
14. One should NEVER generalize.
15. Don’t use no double negatives.
16. Eschew ampersands & abbreviations, etc.
17. One-word sentences? Eliminate.
18. Analogies in writing are like feathers on a snake.
19. The passive voice should never be used.
20. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary. Parenthetical words however should be enclosed in commas.
21. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice.
22. DO NOT use exclamation points and all caps to emphasize!!!
23. Use words correctly, irregardless of how others use them.
24. Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earth-shaking ideas.
25. Use the apostrophe in it’s proper place and omit it when its not needed.
26. If you’ve heard it once, you’ve heard it a thousand times: Resist hyperbole; not one writer in a million can use it correctly.
27. Puns are for children, not groan readers.
28. Go around the barn at high noon to avoid colloquialisms.
29. Even if a mixed metaphor sings, it should be derailed.
30. Who needs rhetorical questions?
31. Exaggeration is a billion times worse than understatement.
32. Do not put statements in the negative form.
33. A writer must not shift your point of view.
34. Place pronouns as close as possible, especially in long sentences of ten or more words, to their antecedents.
35. Writing carefully, dangling participles must be avoided.
36. If any word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking verb is.
37. Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixing metaphors.
38. Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky.
39. Everyone should be careful to use a singular pronoun with singular nouns in their writing.
40. Always pick on the correct idiom.
41. The adverb always follows the verb.
42. Be careful to use the rite homonym.
43. Proofread carefully to see if you any words

The Nature of Assessment

                The Nature of Assessment

Written by International Reading Association, Inc. and the National Council of Teachers of English in Standards for the Assessment of Reading and Writing. Delaware: IRA.2010. pp 1-7.
 

For many years, a transmission view of knowledge, curriculum, and assessment dominated and appeared to satisfy our social, political, and economic needs. Knowledge was regarded as a static entity that was "out there" somewhere, so the key educational question was, How do you get it from out there into students' heads? The corollary assessment question was, What counts as evidence that the knowledge really is in their heads? In a transmission view, it made sense to develop educational standards that specified the content of instruction before developing assessment procedures and engagements.

In the 1920s, notions of the basic purposes of schooling began to shift from an emphasis on the transmission of knowledge to the more complex nurturing of independent and collaborative learning and of problem solving. This shift has gained increasing prominence in today's postindustrial society, with its  everexpanding, need for workers with strong communication skills and dispositions toward problem solving and collaborating. A curriculum committed to independent learning is built on the premise that inquiry, rather than mere transmission of knowledge, is the basis of teaching and learning. This shift from knowledge transmission to inquiry as a primary goal of schools has important implications for assessment. In a knowledge-transmission framework, tests of static knowledge can suffice as assessment instruments.

Students are the participants who are primarily accountable (either they have the knowledge or they don't), with teachers held accountable next. Policymakers, including school board members, trustees, or regents, are the primary recipients of assessment data. An inquiry framework changes the role of assessment and the roles of the participants. Within this framework, assessment is the exploration of how the educational environment and the participants in the educational community support the process of students as they learn to become independent and collaborative thinkers and problem solvers.

This exploration includes an examination of the environment for teaching and learning, the processes and products of learning, and the degree to which all participants-students,teachers, administrators, parents, and board members-meet their obligation to support inquiry. Such assessments examine not only learning over time but also the contexts of learning.Inquiry emphasizes different processes and types of knowledge than does knowledge transmission. For example, it values the ability to recognize problems and to generate multiple and diverse perspectives in trying to solve them.

An inquiry stance asserts that while knowledge and language are likely to change over time, the need for learners at all levels (students, teachers, parents, administrators, and policymakers) who can solve new problems, generate new knowledge,and invent new language practices will remain constant. An inquiry perspective promotes problem posing and problem solving as goals for all participants in the educational community. For example, inquiry values the question of how information from different sources can be used to solve a particular problem. It values explorations of how teachers can promote critical thinking for all students. And it raises the question why our society privileges the knowledge and cultural heritage of some groups over others within current school settings.

Inquiry the needs of a multicultural society in which it is essential to value and find strength in cultural diversity. It also honors the commitment to raising questions and generating multiple solutions. Various stakeholders and cultural groups provide different answers and new perspectives on problems. Respecting difference among learners enriches the curriculum and reduces the likelihood of problematic curricular narrowing.

The Mechanics of Writing Research Paper

The Mechanics of Writing Research Paper

                                         Written by Ari Julianto

 

Here is the outline of the mechanics of writing as MLA suggested in MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers by The Modern Language Association of America, New York, 2009.




1. Spelling
1.1. Consistency
1.2. Word Division
1.3. Plurals
1.4. Foreign Words

2. Punctuation
2.1. The Purpose of Punctuation
2.2. Commas
2.3. Semicolons
2.4. Colons
2.5. Dashes and Parentheses
2.6. Hyphens
2.7. Apostrophes
2.8. Quotation Marks
2.9. Square Brackets
2.10. Slashes
2.11. Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation
Points
2.12. Spacing after Concluding Punctuation Marks

3. Italics
3.1. Words and Letters Referred to as Words and
Letters
3.2. Foreign Words in an English Text
3.3. Emphasis

4. Names ofPersons
4.1. First and Subsequent Uses of Names
4.2. Titles of Persons
4.3. Names of Authors and Fictional Characters

5. Numbers
5.1. Arabic Numerals
5.2. Use of Words or Numerals
5.3. Commas in Numbers
5.4. Percentages and Amounts of Money
5.5. Dates and Times of the Day
5.6. Inclusive Numbers
5.7. Roman Numerals

6. Titles of Works in the Research Paper
6.1. Capitalization and Punctuation
6.2. Italicized Titles
6.3. Titles in Quotation Marks
6.4. Titles and Quotations within Titles
6.5. Exceptions
6.6. Shortened Titles

7. Quotations
7.1. Use and Accuracy of Quotations
7.2. Prose
7.3. Poetry
7.4. Drama
7.5. Ellipsis
7.6. Other Alterations of Sources
7.7. Punctuation with Quotations
7.8. Translations of Quotations

8. Capitalization and Personal Names in Languages Other
Than English
8.1. French
8.2. German
8.3. Italian
8.4. Spanish
8.5. Latin

Approaches to Language Testing

    Approaches to Language Testing


Written by J. B. Heaton in Writing English Language Test, London:Longman. 1990. pp. 15-19.

1. Background
Language tests can be roughly classified according to four main approaches to testing:
(i) the essay-translation approach;
(ii) the structuralist approach;
(iii) the integrative approach; and
(iv) the communicative approach.
Although these approaches are listed here in chronological. order, they should not be regarded as being strictly confined to certain periods in the development of language testing. Nor are the four approaches always mutually exclusive. A useful test will generally incorporate features of several of these approaches. Indeed, a test may have certain inherent weaknesses simply because it is limited to one approach, however attractive that approach may appear.

2. The essay translation approach   
This approach is commonly referred  to as the pre-scientific stage of language testing. No special skill or expertise in testing is required: the subjective judgement of the teacher is considered to be of paramount importance. Tests usually consist of essay writing, translation, and grammatical analysis (often in the form of comments about the language being learnt). The tests also have a heavy literary and cultural bias. Public examinations (e.g. secondary school leaving examinations) resulting from the essay-translation approach sometimes have an aural oral component at the upper intermediate and advanced levels   though this has sometimes been regarded in the past as something additional and in no way an integral part of the syllabus or examination.

3. The structuralist approach
This approach is characterised by the view that language learning is chiefly concerned with the systematic acquisition of a set of habits. It draws on the work of structural linguistics, in particular the importance of contrastive analysts and the need to measure the learner' s master iOf the separate elements of the target language: phonology, vocabulary and  grammar. Such mastery is tested using words and sentences completely divorced from any context on the grounds that a larger sample of language forms can be covered in the test in a comparatively short time. The skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are also separated from one another as much as possible because it is considered essential to test orse thing at a time. Such features of the structuralist approach are, of course,still valid for certain types of test and for certain purposes.

4. The Integrative approach
This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse. Consequently, integrative tests do not seek to separate language skills into neat divisions in order to improve test reliability: instead, they are often designed to assess the learner's ability to use two or more skills simultaneously. Thus, integrative tests are concerned with a global view of proficiency   an underlying language competence or grammar of expectancy", which it is argued every learner possesses regardless of the purpose for which the language is being learnt. Integrative testing involves functional language but not the use of functional language. Integrative tests are best characterised by the use of doze testing and of dictation. Oral interviews, translation and essay writing are also included in many integrative tests   a point frequently overlooked by those who take too narrow a view of integrative testing.

5. The communicative approach
The communicative approach to language testing is sometimes linked to the integrative approach. However, although both approaches emphasise the importance of the meaning of utterances rather than their form and structure, there are nevertheless fundamental differences between the two approaches. Communicative tests are concerned primarily (if not totally) with how language is used in communication. Consequently, most aim to incorporate tasks which approximate as closely as possible to those facing the students in real life. Success is judged in terms of the effectiveness of the communication which takes place rather than formal linguistic accuracy. Language 'use' is often emphasised to the exclusion of language `usage'. `Use' is concerned with how people actually use language for a multitude of different purposes while 'usage' concerns the formal patterns of language (described in prescriptive grammars and lexicons). In practice. however, some tests of a communicative nature include the testing of usage and also assess ability to handle the formal patterns of the target language. Indeed, few supporters of the communicative approach would argue that communicative competence can ever be achieved without a considerable mastery of the grammar of a language.

Good and Fail Proposal

Good and Fail Proposal

Written by Catherine Dawson in A Practical Guide to Research Methods. Oxford: How To Content.2007. pp. 64-65

 

WHAT MAKES A GOOD PROPOSAL?
- Relevance, either to the work of the funding body or to the student’s course.
- The research is unique, or offers new insight or development.
- The title, aims and objectives are all clear and succinct.
- Comprehensive and thorough background research and literature review has been undertaken.
- There is a good match between the issues to be addressed and the approach being adopted.
- The researcher demonstrates relevant background knowledge and/or experience.
- Timetable, resources and budget have all been worked out thoroughly, with most eventualities covered.
- Useful policy and practice implications.

REASONS WHY RESEARCH PROPOSALS FAIL
- Aims and objectives are unclear or vague.
- There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed.
- The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the timescale.
- The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in-depth background research.
- Problem is of insufficient importance.
- Information about the data collection method is insufficiently detailed.
- Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently detailed.
- Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.
- Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out.

Passive Construction in Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian

       Passive Construction in Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian

Written by James Neil Sneddon in Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. 2006. pp.43-46.

In passive constructions the subject is the patient. Passives occur more frequently than in English, often occurring where a passive would not be acceptable in English; passives in a number of examples below have translations in active voice because a passive in English would be stilted at best. This is further discussed below.

1. In passive type one the verb has prefix di- and the actor is expressed in an agent phrase which follows the verb. The agent can be marked by a preposition, either sama ~ ama or oleh ‘by’:
Saya ditelefon oleh kepala sekolah.
I was phoned by the school principal.

Alis gua dibentuk sama dia.
My eyebrows were shaped by him.

The actor can also occur without a preposition. In this case it must immediately follow the verb:

Gue ditinggal pacar gua.
I was left by my boyfriend.

.. tindakan-tindakan yang dianggap pihak kampus sebage radikal.
.. actions which were considered by the university authorities as radical.

2. Passive in colloquial Jakartan Indonesian (CJI) occur with first person, although infrequent, is acceptable:

Mereka dibantu sama kita juga loh.
They were also helped by us.

Yang diajar saya tu orang-orang keren semua.
The ones taught by me were all top people.

3. In passive type two the verb has no prefix and the actor is a pronoun or pronoun substitute preceding the verb. All three persons can occur. Often an active clause is required in the English translation:

Kurikulumnya gua buat sendiri.
I composed the curriculum myself.

Nasinya lu kemanain?
Where did you put the rice?

4. In CJI this is also usually the case. In the first example below temporal udah and negative kagak precede the agent gua, and in the second modal bisa precedes the agent dia:

Yang laennya tuh udah kagak gua kenal lagi.
I don’t know the others anymore.

Yang bisa dia lakukan hanya minta.
All he can do is beg.

5. However, the rule is not strictly kept in CJI and it is not uncommon for a preverbal component of the predicate to appear between the agent and the verb, as do enggak and tidak ‘not’ and mau ‘intend’ in the following:

Yang sebelah sini gua nggak liat.
I don’t see the ones on this side.

Ini yang mereka tidak pikirkan.
This is what they don’t think about.

Ini yang kita mau angkat.
This is what we are going to raise.

6. In CJI nouns cannot occur as agent in passive this is possible

Kalo elu yang beli harga nggak akan sama dengan yang Ronny atau Anyun ambil.
If you’re the one who buys it the price won’t be the same as what Ronny or Anyun get.

.. apa yang bokap gua perlakukan.
.. what my father does.

The dark side of Yuli, yang banyak orang enggak tau.
The dark side of Yuli, which many people don’t know.

7. Passives in both forms of Indonesian, as in English, allow a statement of an action when the agent is not mentioned, generally because it is not relevant to the situation:

Sekarang temboknya udah dicat warna kuning.
Now the wall has been painted yellow.

Gua dimundurin gara-gara lahirnya bulan Oktober.
I was held back because I was born in October.

This is the major function of passives; the overwhelming majority of passives with di- (passive type one) have no agent expressed. There is remarkable similarity for the different age groups distinguished and all three contexts.

How to Ask The Questions in Questionnaires and Interviews

How to Ask The Questions in Questionnaires and Interviews

Written by Bruce W. Tuckman in Conducting Educational. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. 1999. pp.238-239.
 

Certain forms of questions and certain response modes are commonly used in questionnaires and interviews. This section deals with question formats and the following section addresses response modes.

1. Direct Versus Indirect Questions
The difference between direct and indirect questions lies in how obviously the questions solicit specific information. A direct question, for instance, might ask someone whether or not she likes her job. An indirect question might ask what she thinks of her job or selected aspects of it, supporting the researcher’s attempt to build inferences from patterns of responses. By asking questions without obvious purposes, the indirect approach is the more likely of the two to engender frank and open responses. It may take a greater number of questions fo collect information relevant to a single point, though. 

2. Specific Versus Nonspecific Questions
A set of specific questions focuses on a particular object, person, or idea about which a researcher desires input regarding an attitude, belief, or concept; nonspecific questions probe more general areas.
For example, an interviewer can ask a factory worker (specifically) how he likes operating a lathe or (nonspecifically) how he likes operating machinery or working at manual tasks. An interviewer can ask a student (specifically) how much she likes a particular teacher versus (nonspecifically) how satisfied she feels with a particular class taught by the teacher. Specific questions,like direct ones, may cause  respondents fo become cautious or guarded and to give less-than-honest answers.Nonspecific questions may lead circuitously to the desired information while  provoking less alarm by the respondent.

3. Questions of Fact Versus Opinion
An interviewer may also choose between questions that ask respondents to provide facts and those that request opinions. A factual question might ask a respondent the type of car he or she owns or to specify marital status. An opinion question might ask about preference for Ford or Chevrolet models or reasons why (or why not) a respondent thinks that marriage contributes to a meaningful relationship between a man and a woman. Because the respondent may have a faulty memory or a conscious desire to create a particular impression, factual questions do not always elicit factual answers. Nor do opinion questions necessarily elicit honest opinions, because they are subject to distortions based on social desirability; that is, respondents may reply in ways that show themselves in the most socially acceptable light. With both fact and opinion questions, questionnaires and interviews may be structured and administered to minimize these sources of bias.

4. Questions Versus Statements
To gather input on many topics, an interviewer can either ask a respondent a direct question or provide a statement and ask for a response. To a question, a respondent provides an appropriate answer. For a statement, the respondent indicates whether he or she agrees or disagrees (or whether the statement is true or false). Applied in this manner, statements offer an alternative to questions as  way of obtaining information. In fact, attitude measurement instruments more commonly present statements than ask questions.
Consider an example:
l Do you think that the school day should be lengthened?
YES     NO
1. The school day should be shortened.
AGREE DISAGREE

These two formats are indistinguishable in their potentialfor eliciting honest responses. Usually, researchers choose between them on the basis of response mode, as discussed in the next section.

5. Predetermined Versus Response-Keyed Questions
Some questionnaires predetermine the number of questions to be answered; they require respondents to complete all items. Others are designed so that subsequent questions may or may not call for answers, depending upon responses to keyed questions.  For example, a keyed item may ask a respondent if he is a college graduate. If the response is no, the respondent isinstructed to skip the next question. The decision whetheror not to answer the question is keyed to the response tothe previous question. Consider another example of responsekeying. An interviewer asks a school superintendent if herdistrict is using a nationally known curriculum. Twopossible questions are keyed to the response. If the superintendent says that the district is using the curriculum, the next question asks about its effectiveness;if the superintendent says the district is not using the curriculum, the next question asks why.

Questions and Elements in Analyzing A Novel

Questions and Elements in Analyzing A Novel


                                 Written by Ari Julianto



1. Starting Points to Consider
- What is your impression of the author’s purpose?
- Is the novel written to be entertaining, informative, philosophical, argumentative, or a combination?

Hint: Title, chapter headings, or opening lines may give indications of the purpose. Then consider the following questions as possible starting points:
1. Do you agree with the ideas presented in the work? Why or why not?
2. Does the author’s imaginative environment seem realistic and engaging? How? Why?
3. How does this novel compare to other works by the same author? To works by other authors?
4. Does the novel reflect any historical, sociological, religious, or psychological concerns?
5. Do you agree with evaluations of the novel by other critics? If not, why?

2. Point of View
 - Does the narrator speak in first person ("I") or in third person?
- If there is a first-person narrator, is that person a major character or a minor character observing the main action?
- If the narration is in third person, is the narrator omniscient (able to see anything and tell us what is in the characters' minds), or is there limited omniscience so that we see into the mind of only one character?
- Does the point of view change?
- How does the point of view impact the story or theme?

3. Plot
 - Are there major and minor events?
- How are they related?
- Is time a factor in the plot?
- Does the novel unravel in chronological order?
- If not, why not?
- Are any later incidents foreshadowed in the story?
- Are flashbacks used?
- If so, why?
- Is the story logical?
- Does the plot depend on coincidence, or does it develop from the characters’ actions?
- What are the conflicts?
- Are they internal conflicts (psychological, theological) or external conflicts (sociological, biological, or environmental)?
- Are conflicts resolved?
- Is there a surprise conclusion?
- Is the conclusion plausible, satisfying?

4. Theme
 - Does the title suggest a theme?
- Are themes revealed through the plot (actions, dialogue) or personalities of the characters?
- Are there other symbols, images, and/or descriptive details in the work that suggest themes?
- Look for repeated words and images as clues.

5. Setting
 - What is the setting of the work?
- Is there more than one?
- Consider historical period, season, time of day, and geographical location. What mood or atmosphere (gloomy, tense, cheerful) is created by the setting?
- Why has the author chosen the setting?
- Does the setting simply provide a backdrop, or is it symbolic?
- If so, of what?

6. Character
 - Are the characters believable? Why or why not?
- Is there one protagonist (main character) or several?
- Does the story have traditional heroes or heroines (protagonists) and villains (antagonists)?
- An antagonist can be anything in conflict with the protagonist, such as nature. Does the author reveal characters through the comments and thoughts of other characters or through the characters' own actions, words, and thoughts?
- How do the characters help convey the theme?
- What are the most important traits of the main characters?
- What is the author's attitude toward the characters?
-Are readers supposed to sympathize with the characters or criticize them?
- How do the secondary and minor characters function in the novel?
- Do they provide parallels or contrasts with traits of the main characters?
- Are the main characters dynamic (evolve, change, or learn something), or do they remain static (unchanging)? How? Why?
- If dialect or colloquial speech is used, what is its effect?
- Are the social classes and occupations of the characters significant?
- Does the social, economic, political, or religious environment affect the characters and support the theme?

7. Imagery, Symbolism, and Tone
 - What images (any details that appeal to the physical senses) are used in the novel? Are the images literal (a description of an old man) or figurative ("He was as old as the hills”)?
- Are there repeated images or related images (light and dark)? If so, what is the significance?
- Are symbols conventional ones (spring symbolizing a new beginning, the color red representing passion) or unusual (the sea symbolizing life in Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea)?
- Symbols are often open to the reader’s interpretation. What is the prevailing tone of the work?
- How does the author feel about the work?
- How does the author make the reader feel about the characters? Sympathetic? Humorous? How does this tone affect the story? How do the imagery and symbolism affect the novel’s theme? Do they stand by themselves or serve as representations of deeper, meaningful concepts.

Important Elements in Analyzing A Short Story

Important Elements in Analyzing A Short Story

                                     Written by Ari Julianto


When analyzing fiction, you should consider:

1. PLOT
Plot refers to what happens in the story - events and thoughts which make up the story's basic structure. The plot is usually composed of an introduction, rising action, a climax, falling action and an ending that ties the story together. All plots contain a conflict: a struggle between two or more opposing forces. The conflict may be internal (person vs. self) or external (person vs. person, person vs. nature, person vs. society, or person vs. fate).

2. SETTING
Setting refers to the location of a story or novel in terms of place, time, social environment, and physical environment. Place: the geographical location of the story - a country or a city, a large city or a small village, indoors or outdoors, or both. Time: the period in history, the season of the year, the day of the month, and/or the hour of the day in which the events of the story occur. Social environment: the location of characters and events in a particular society and/or a particular social class (lower, middle, or upper class).
Physical environment: the details of the location in which the story takes place. These physical details often indicate the emotional state of the characters or the relationship between characters.

3. CHARACTERS
Characters are the people (or animals!) in a story. The term character refers to people's outward appearance and behaviour and also their inner emotional, intellectual, and moral qualities. Most stories have a main character (the protagonist or hero/heroine), whose personality traits move the plot forward and contribute to conflict. Many stories also have at least one minor character, who is not the focus of the story but who still plays an important role. Sometimes characters provide contrasts with one another.

4. POINT OF VIEW
Point of view is the perspective from which a story is told. The author creates a narrator to tell the story. It is through the narrator's perspective (through the narrator's eyes and mind) that readers learn what is happening in a story. Do not make the mistake of thinking that the narrator of a story is the author. Remember that the point of view and the narrator are tools created and used by the author in order to tell a story in a certain way. The narrator of a story does not necessarily express the author's opinions.

5. IMAGERY
Imagery refers to the collection of images in a work of fiction: the mental pictures created by the author's words. Writers use concrete images to go beyond physical description in order to express feelings and states of mind. Most images are created through words that appeal to the reader's five senses.
For example, a pink flower may appeal to the reader's sense of sight or smell and bring forth pleasant associations with springtime or a holiday memory. The colour green suggests youth and life; white, purity.

6. SYMBOLISM
A symbol is something that represents something else. It is an image of an event or a physical object (a thing, person, or place) that is used to represent something non-physical such as an idea, a value, or an emotion. Authors use symbols to suggest meaning. A heart, for example, symbolises love. One symbol may suggest more than one meaning.

7. TONE
Tone refers to the author's attitude or position toward the action, characters, narrator, subject, and even readers of the story. To determine the tone of a story, the reader must examine the language the author uses and decide what effect the author's choice of words has.

8. IRONY
Irony refers to the unexpected difference or lack of agreement between appearance and truth or between expectation and reality. Irony is apparent when an author uses language to create a deliberate contrast between appearance (what seems to be true) and truth (what is true), or between expectation (what was hoped for) and reality (what actually happens). Often readers know or understand something that a character in a story does not.

9. THEME
A theme is a truth that a story reveals. A theme is rarely directly stated by the author. Instead, the reader must discover the theme by questioning and examining the meaning from details in the story. Usually themes deal with general areas of human experience, for example: the nature of humanity or society, the relationship of human beings to the environment, or the question of moral responsibility.

Mostly taken from The Learning Center

What Is Scientific Research?

                What Is Scientific Research?
 

Written by A. Yavuz Oruc in Handbook of Scientific Proposal Writing. New York: CRC Press. 2012. pp18-181.

The term scientific research is used broadly to refer to an investigation of open problems in a scientific field. The synergy between the two words that constitute the term codifies its meaning. We will explore these two
words and the synergy between them to give as complete a description of the term scientific research as possible. We begin with the second word first.

Source image: www.123rf.com

The Merriam-Webster online dictionary* defines research as “careful or diligent search,” “studious inquiry; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery or interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws,” or “collecting of information about a particular subject.”

Others define it more succinctly as “human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter.” We will adopt the following more generic definition to focus on the essence of research:

Research is a process of understanding a problem, and discovering facts to help solve it. Researching a problem can thus be viewed as solving or completing a puzzle. However, in this puzzle analogy, obtaining the missing pieces may involve steps that may go far beyond searching for them. The pieces may exist in some other form and may have to be modified before they can be used, or they may not even exist and may have to be created. Exactly how the pieces are obtained and the puzzle is solved depends on the model of
research process used.

One such model is that of a mathematical investigation in which Mathematical results are customarily established using five basic entities:
(1) axioms (postulates), 
Axioms are generally the ground rules of a mathematical investigation. All statements must agree with the axioms of the mathematical domain within which the research activity is carried out.
 
(2) definitions and propositions, 
Definitions and propositions form the front end of such an activity. They are introduced to formalize the problems to be solved.

(3) lemmas
Lemmas serve as auxiliary puzzle pieces

(4) theorems
Theorems correspond to blocks of puzzles, and corollaries extend the solutions of puzzles to the solutions of other similar puzzles. In this setting, stating and proving lemmas should constitute a research activity if they have not been stated or proved before. They are like creating new pieces to solve a puzzle. Stating and proving theorems is similar to putting smaller pieces together to make bigger pieces of a puzzle. This would also be a research activity if the theorems in question have not been stated and proved elsewhere.

(5) corollaries.
On the other hand, corollaries are more like consequences of theorems and lemmas. Stating and proving corollaries, in and of themselves, should therefore be viewed more as a process of extending known results. However, in some cases, coming up with corollaries and proving them may involve considerable creativity and effort and thus constitute a legitimate research activity.

Basic and Applied Research

                Basic and Applied Research


Written by Kenneth S. Bordens and Bruce B. Abbott in Research Design and Methods, A Process Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2011. pp. 4-6.


Scientists work in a variety of areas to identify phenomena and develop valid explanations for them. The goals established by scientists working within a given field of research may vary according to the nature of the research problem being considered.

For example, the goal of some scientists is to discover general laws that explain particular classes of behaviors. In the course of developing those laws, psychologists study behavior in specific situations and attempt to isolate the variables affecting behavior.

Other scientists within the field are more interested in tackling practical problems than in finding general laws. For example, they might be interested in determining which of several therapy techniques is best for treating severe phobias. An important distinction has been made between basic research and applied research along the lines just presented.

I. Basic Research
Basic research is conducted to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or dis-confirmation of theoretical or empirical positions. The major goal of basic research is to acquire general information about a phenomenon, with little emphasis placed on applications to real-world examples of the phenomenon.

For example, research on the memory process may be conducted to test the efficacy of interference as a viable theory of forgetting. The researcher would be interested in discovering something about the forgetting process while testing the validity of a theoretical position. Applying the results to forgetting in a real-world situation would be of less immediate interest.

II. Applied Research
The focus of applied research is somewhat different from that of basic research. Although you may still work from a theory when formulating your hypotheses, your primary goal is to generate information that can be applied directly to a real-world problem. A study by James Ogloff and Neil Vidmar (1994) on pretrial publicity provides a nice example of applied research. It informs us about a very real problem facing the court system: To what extent does pretrial publicity affect the decisions jurors make about a case? The results of studies such as Ogloff and Vidmar’s can help trial and appeals court judges make decisions concerning limitations placed on jury exposure to pretrial publicity. Further examples of applied research can be found in the areas of clinical, environmental, and industrial psychology (among others).

III. Overlap Between Basic and Applied Research
The distinction  between applied and basic research is not always clear. Some research areas have both basic and applied aspects. Consider the work of Elizabeth Loftus (1979) on the psychology of the eyewitness.

Loftus has extensively studied the factors that affect the ability of an eyewitness to accurately perceive, remember, and recall a criminal event. Her research certainly fits the mold of applied research. But her results also have some implications for theories of memory, so they also fit the mold of basic research. In fact, many of Loftus’s findings can be organized within existing theories of memory.

Even applied research is not independent of theories and other research in psychology.The defining quality of applied research is that the researcher attempts to conduct a study the results of which can be applied directly to a real-world event. To accomplish this task, you must choose a research strategy that maximizes the applicability of findings.

Circumfix ke-...-an in Bahasa Indonesia

Circumfix ke-...-an in Bahasa Indonesia

Written by James Neil Sneddon in Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar. 1996.London: Routledge.pp. 35-38



Circumfix ke-...-an forms nouns from adjectives, verbs and other classes. Such nouns are generally of an abstract nature.

1. Ke-...-an nouns can have an adjective base.
The nouns are all abstract, identifying the characteristic of the adjective:

baik good : kebaikan goodness, kindness
bebas free : kebebasan freedom
bersih clean : kebersihan cleanliness
cantik beautiful : kecantikan beauty
sehat healthy : kesehatan health
sulit difficult : kesulitan difficulty

2. In general the meaning of the noun can be predicted from the meaning of the adjective base. In a few cases this is not so:

berat heavy : keberatan objection
malu shy : kemaluan genitals
terang clear : keterangan explanation

3. The negative tidak 'not' can combine with some adjectives to form a compound base for ke-...-an nouns.
These correspond to English nouns with prefix dis- or in-:

adil just : ketidak-adilan injustice
jujur honest : ketidak-jujuran dishonesty
puas satisfied : ketidak-puasan dissatisfaction
senang pleased : ketidak-senangan displeasure

4. Several adjectives derived with prefix se- can form the base of a ke-...-an noun:
seimbang balanced : keseimbangan balance, equilibrium
sesuai appropriate, suitable : kesesuaian suitability, compatibility
seragam uniform, of the same kind : keseragaman uniformity

5. The noun can be formed from an intransitive verb:
datang come : kedatangan arrival
hidup live : kehidupan life
ingin wish : keinginan wish, desire
lahir be born : kelahiran birth
menang win : kemenangan victory
naik go up : kenaikan rise, increase

6. The base can be a verb with prefix ber- or ter-. 
In this case the prefix remains:

berangkat depart : keberangkatan departure
berhasil succeed : keberhasilan success
terbatas limited : keterbatasan limitation
tersedia available : ketersediaan availability

7. A few nouns are formed from a negated verb or have a compound verb base:
tahu know : ketidak-tahuan ignorance
ikut serta participate : keikut-sertaan participation

8. A few ke-.„-an nouns are based on modals or adverbs:
boleh may : kebolehan ability, skill
harus must : keharusan necessity, a must
kerap frequently : kekerapan frequency
lebih more : kelebihan excess
mungkin possible : kemungkinan possibility

9. ke-...-an nouns can be based on nouns; this use is very productive and many forms are recent in the language.
The ke-...-an forms in general mean 'having to do with [base]'. Some forms have a different translation from the base:

anggota member : keanggotaan membership
daerah region : kedaerahan regionalism
ibu mother : keibuan motherliness
pemimpin leader : kepemimpinan leadership
wanita woman : kewanitaan femininity

10. Many ke-...-an nouns with noun bases typically modify another noun. Thus keagamaan 'having to do with religion' occurs in such phrases as upacara keagamaan 'religious ceremony'. Sometimes the translation depends on context; thus kebangsaan is translated differently in the phrases kebangsaan kapal itu 'nationality of the ship' and lagu kebangsaan 'national song'. When modifying another noun it is frequently translated by an adjective, as in the case of keagamaan above. In other cases the ke-...-an noun has the same translation as the base. Thus penduduk 'population' and (teori) kependudukan 'population (theory)'. In either case such nouns are best glossed 'having to do with [base]',except where context makes their meaning clear, as in thefollowing examples:

kedokteran medical, having to do with doctors : fakultas kedokteran faculty of medicine
kehutanan forestry, having to do with forests : petugas kehutanan forestry official
kepolisian having to do with police : akademi kepolisian police academy
keuangan finance, finances : departemen keuangan department of finance; soal keuangan financial matters
kemasyarakatan social, having to do with society or community : masalah kemasyarakatan community
problem
kemahasiswaan having to do with students : hidup kemahasiswaan student life
keimigrasian having to do with immigration : undang-undang keimigrasian immigration laws

11. In a few cases ke-...-an nouns are formed from nouns already having prefix peN-, such as kependudukan 'having to do with population' (penduduk population menduduki occupy) and kepemimpinan leadership (pemimpin leader, pimpin lead).

12. With noun bases indicating a person holding a rank or office, ke-...-an forms nouns meaning 'the domain administered by [base]':
duta ambassador : kedutaan embassy
kaisar emperor : kekaisaran empire
lurah village head : kelurahan administrative unit headed by a lurah
menteri minister : kementerian department headed by a minister
raja king : kerajaan kingdom
sultan sultan : kesultanan sultanate

13. With a very few noun bases ke-...-an forms nouns indicating a collection of [base]:
pulau island : kepulauan archipelago
pustaka book (archaic) : kepustakaan bibliography, list of references

14. A few nouns are derived from numbers, both definite and indefinite , meaning 'a group which consists of [base]:
satu one : kesatuan unit
sebelas eleven : kesebelasan eleven (soccer team)
seluruh whole : keseluruhan entirety

Writing A Review of A Film

Writing A Review of A Film

    Written by Ari Julianto


 




I. Definition
Based on American Heritage Dictionary (6162) the word review is defined as follows:
re·view v. re·viewed, re·view·ing, re·views.
— v. tr. 1. To look over, study, or examine again. 2. To consider retrospectively; look back on. 3. To examine with an eye to criticism or correction: reviewed the research findings. 4. To write or give a critical report on (a new work or performance, for example). 5. Law. To reexamine (an action or a determination) judicially, especially in a higher court, in order to correct possible errors. 6. To subject to a formal inspection, especially a military inspection.
— v. intr. 1. To go over or restudy material: reviewing for a final exam. 2. To write critical reviews, especially for a newspaper or magazine.
— n. Abbr. rev. 1. A reexamination or reconsideration. 2. A retrospective view or survey. 3. a. A restudying of subject matter. b. An exercise for use in restudying material. 4. An inspection or examination for the purpose of evaluation. 5. a. A report or an essay giving a critical estimate of a work or performance. b. A periodical devoted to articles and essays on current affairs, literature, or art. 6. a. A formal military inspection. b. A formal military ceremony held in honor of a person or an occasion. 7. Law. A judicial reexamination, especially by a higher court, of an action or a determination. 8. A musical show consisting of often satirical skits, songs, and dances; a revue. [Probably from Middle English, inspection of military forces, from Old French revue, review, from feminine past participle of reveeir, to see again, from Latin revidKre :
re-, re- + vidKre,

Meanwhile Leo et al (2007: 137) states that a review is a critical assessment in a newspaper, a magazine, or on the internet. the review may be a review of a book, a play, or a film. or something else.

II. The Purpose
The purpose of writing a review is to let the reader know whether it is worthwhile to read a certain book, to view a particular film, or to attend the performance of a play.

III.  The Elements To Be Considered
1. Bibliographic Elements
This includes the title of the film, the screen writer, the producer, the director, the film company, the date of the release and the achievement in awards,

2. Plot
Ade (2008: 40) defines plot as the central plan or an outline of events in a play/film. The plot refers to the story that a play/film tells. Normally, the events are arranged sequentially. This does not happen all the time. Some of them distort the sequence of events.
How is the plot constructed?
Is there a pattern of repetition?
Is there a climax?

3.Setting
This includes the location, the sets, the props, and the costumes. Setting generally refers to the location of a literary work. The setting is a reference to the placement of a work in both time and place. The locale or environment in which a story is set will determine a lot about it. The setting is often related to the focus or concern of the play/film.

4. Theme
Each play/film makes a statement about the social world. This may emerge from an exploration of the entire story. The theme is the central message of a play/film. It is however possible to have sub-themes along with major dramatists who seek to make statements that have universal validity in their works. Generally, plays/films that treat common human problems make statements that have timeless relevance and consequently have more appeal as they speak to people of all ages and at all places.

5. Type
Finding out the type of the film. Is it action, adventure, comedy, drama, horror, science fiction, tragedy, religious, historical, documentary, thriller, western, war, martial arts, or musical?

6. Acting
Point out the main and supporting actors and actresses' performance in relation to the story.
Do they act appropriately according to the plot?

7.  Soundtrack
This includes the sound effects, noise and music.
Is the soundtrack adequate?
Are there any special sound effect used?

8. Lighting
Is the lighting artificial or natural?
How about the direction and the intensity of the lighting?

9. Screen Writer
The dialogues should be moved along the story and also sound realsitic,

10. Cinematography
This related to camera angle, camera movement, and camera distance (far shot, medium shot or close shot),

11. Rating
The most common ratings used are: starts, thumbs up and down, and letter grades.

  
IV. Tips
1. Point out the strength and the weakness,
2. View the film several times,
3. Try to read many professional reviewers in writing A film Review,
4. Focus on the elements to be analyzed and take down the notes,
5. Find out whether the elements in the film support each other,
6. Write a brief of the story clearly   


Reference
Ade, Olaofe Isaac and Oyeniyi Okunoye.2008. An Introduction to Literature and Literary Criticism. Abuja: National Open University of Nigeria.

Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.

Leo, Sutanto et al. 2007. English for Academic Purpose: Essay Writing. Yogjakarta: Penerbit Andi Offset.