The Use of Apostrophe in Thesis

            The Use of Apostrophe in Thesis 

Written by Richard Lauchman in Punctuation at Work. Simple  Principles for Achieving Clarity and Good Style. Washington. Amacom. 2010. pp. 83-88.

We use the apostrophe to form contractions and to show ownership. The mark is used to create plural forms only when using s to form a plural would be confusing.

1. Contractions

In They’re finishing the project, the apostrophe indicates that you’ve left out the a in are. In She said she’d catch the next flight, the apostrophe indicates the omission of woul in would. Many people consider contractions to be informal—appropriate to spoken but not to written English—but they often have a place in day-to-day workplace writing. They don’t belong in rules, regulations, directives, and contracts, but they can help create a conversational tone in correspondence. Contractions are especially important in plain language texts of all sorts. Use them when the occasion calls for a relaxed or personal tone.

I’m looking forward to meeting you is arguably better for business than Making your acquaintance is eagerly anticipated by the undersigned.

2. Possessives

When you write Sam’s boots, you’re indicating that the boots belong to Sam. Here, the apostrophe indicates the omission of h and i.

3. When a noun (singular or plural) ends in a letter other than s, use an apostrophe and an s to form the possessive.

one man’s decision      the men’s decision                  IBM’s policy

a woman’s life             the women’s section               the cacti’s life span

4. When a singular noun ends in an s, simply add an apostrophe to form the possessive.

Jones’ reaction            Hawkins’ analysis                   my boss’ idea

People argue about this usage. Some authorities say you should add both an apostrophe and an s (e.g., Dickens’s novels, Jenkins’s plan). Others say that sometimes you add both an apostrophe and an s and sometimes you add only the apostrophe, depending on the sound. But are we really in control of what the reader imagines he hears when he reads? I’m recommending my preference here because I think most readers share it. If your organization has a style guide, consult it on this issue. If your organization has no style guide, prepare yourself for senseless arguments

5. When a possessive construction looks strange to you, find another way to show ownership.

If you think that both Aranjuez’ music and Aranjuez’s music look odd, then write about the music of Aranjuez. If Davis’ findings and Davis’s findings both look awkward to you, then phrase the idea the findings of Davis. You could also write Davis finds or Davis has found.

6. When the plural of a noun ends in s (as most do), add only the apostrophe to form the possessive.

the employees’ goal                the companies’ supplier           the players’ diet

7. When the plural of a noun does not end in s, add the apostrophe and the s to form the possessive.

the women’s club        the children’s toys       the criteria’s focus       the data’s validity

8. In cases where ownership is joint, only the last noun receives an apostrophe and an s.

JGT and DDI’s joint proposal                        O’Rourke and Creal’s partnership

FBI and CIA’s shared task

9. In cases where there is no joint ownership, make both (or all) of the nouns possessive.

JGT’s and DDI’s proposals are nearly identical.

EPA’s and BLM’s mandates sometimes conflict.

Fujita’s, Walker’s, and Pang’s theories help explain climate change.

10. In compounds, make only the last noun possessive.

someone else’s problem

the Attorney General’s mistake

Smith & Wesson’s patents

11. Don’t use the apostrophe with possessive pronouns.

ours (not our’s); yours (not your’s)     theirs (not their’s)        hers (not her’s)

12. Use the possessive case in expressions of duration.

The possessive case makes sense intuitively in phrases like a moment’s notice and last year’s results. After all, last year’s results are the results “of” last year in exactly the same way Jack’s boots are the boots “of” Jack. Using the possessive may not be quite so intuitive in expressions like a year’s imprisonment and eight hours’ work. But the apostrophe is necessary in such expressions of duration; here, we are talking about imprisonment that lasts for a year and work that occupies eight hours.

Use the apostrophe and the s here, and simply follow the rules regarding singular and plural, as in the examples below.

one day’s effort          one week’s vacation                three months’ notice               five days’ pay

In such expressions, you could hyphenate instead if you changed the words only slightly. For example, instead of writing about a need for three months’ notice, you could say you need a three-month notice. Instead of saying that someone was sentenced to a year’s imprisonment you could say he received a one-year sentence.

13. Use the possessive case for a noun preceding a verb ending in ing.

Jill’s seeking enlightenment led to her joining the circus.

My manager’s scheming will ultimately cost him his job.

The company’s establishing an office in China is a risky move.

14. Rarely do we use the apostrophe to form plurals.

The apostrophe plus s construction is used to form plurals in three special circumstances.

First, use it on those rare occasions when you need to pluralize a single letter or digit:

She has trouble pronouncing f’s and v’s.

The data stream consists of 1’s and 0’s.

Second, use it when you are pluralizing an abbreviation that ends with a period:

He has Ph.D.’s in linguistics and psychology.

Nine people with M.B.A.’s have applied for the position.

Finally, use it whenever it’s absolutely necessary for clarity:

Have you considered the pro’s and cons?

The diplomat explained the do’s and don’ts of the culture.

Here you simply have to trust your judgment. Newsweek omits the apostrophe in pros and cons, probably because the phrase has become a unit easily recognized by the culture. Generally speaking, it’s safe to follow the lead of the editors of a mainstream periodical.

Don’t use the apostrophe + s to form the plural in any other circumstance.

When an abbreviation doesn’t end with a period (most don’t), just use an s to form the plural:

several RFPs 12 CEOs

some of the ATMs a squadron of F-22s

This is also true in expressions of units of historical time. Just add an s.

The stock markets of most developed nations surged during the 1990s.

Over one million Irish immigrated to the United States in the 1900s.

15. Think twice about using the apostrophe to abbreviate the decade, as in ’20s and ’60s.

The apostrophe used to be expected in such constructions as the Roaring ’20s and the Psychedelic ’60s. Here it indicates the omission of 19. These days there is apparently no consensus on whether that apostrophe is required. Because context would indicate that you’re discussing a decade, common sense suggests we omit the apostrophe here, especially when you consider that it leads to such constructions as the ’70’s military build-up (meaning the build-up that occurred throughout the 70s) and the ’90’s economic spurt (the spurt that occurred during the 90s). The constructions ’70’s and ’90’s would be logical there, but the ideas are clearer if we write about the military build-up of the 70s and the economic spurt of the 90s.

16. Be exact with the names of organizations, places, and institutions.

Always follow the “authentic” form (the conventional way the name has come to be handled). Harpers Ferry, for example, was named for a place where a fellow named Harper once operated a ferry, and thus an English teacher would want to call it Harper’s Ferry (using the apostrophe to indicate ownership). But the authentic form of the name (the way the name is expressed in the town charter and on all maps) lacks the apostrophe—and you should follow that lead. It is the same with Typesetters Union, Dramatists Guild, Johns Hopkins University, and in every other case where names have become descriptive, rather than possessive.

The other side of this rule is that we should use the apostrophe when the name of the organization, place, or periodical conventionally ,uses one. It is Reader’s Digest, for example, not Readers’ Digest or Readers Digest. Why? Simply because that’s how Reader’s Digest prefers it.

Onomatopoeia in English and Indonesian

     Onomatopoeia in English and Indonesian

                            Written by Ari Julianto

I. Meaning of Onomatopoeia

In some respects, the study of the processes whereby new words into being a language like English seems relatively straightforward. People can very quickly understand a new word in their own language, and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the Word-formation processes in the language.

Image:inspirasiricky.blogspot.com

It should be remembered that these processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language. Yule (200:164) explained that: "It is difficult now to understand the views expressed in the early ninetieth century over the 'tasteless innovation' of a word like handbook, or the horror expressed by a London newspaper in 1909 over the use of newly coined word aviation. Yet many terms of recent currency cause similar outcries."

Rather than acts as if the language is being debased, we might prefer to view the constant evolution of new terms und new uses of old terms as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users. Let us consider some kinds of the word formation processes below that is according to Yule (2001:66).

The formation or use of words such as buzzes murmur that imitates the sounds associated with the objects or action they refer to. The word onomatopoeia is taken from literal or Latin, Namely: onomatoplolia or onomatopoios. And onomatopoeia in language is the representing of a sound by an imitation there of, e.g., the cat news.

Meanwhile, Daughlas (1999: 1) said that onomatopoeia is the use of words whose pronunciation imitates the sound the word describes, "buzz" for example when spoken is intended to resemble the sound of a flying insect. Other examples include these: slam, pow, screech, whirr, crush, sizzle, crunch, wring, wrench, gouge, grind, mangle, bang, blam, pow, zap, fizz, urp, roar, growl, blip, click, whimper, and of course snap, crackle, and pop. Note that the connection between sound and pronunciation is sometimes rather a product of imagination (slam and wring are not very good imitations), and note also that written language retains an aural quality, so that even unspoken your writing has a sound to it.

In rhetoric, linguistic and poetry, onomatopoeia is a figure of speech that employs a word, or occasionally, a grouping of words, that imitates, echoes, or suggest the object it is describing, such as  "bang", "click", "fizz", "hush" or animal noises such as " moa" quack or " meow". They are also a very common feature of comic strip writing, where words such as "Pow" or "ka - pwing" help the reader to better image what is being described, and make up for the lack of literary description.

Daughlas (1999:1) says that onomatopoeia words exist in every language, although they are different in each. Examples:

a. In Latin, tuxtay was the equivalent of "bam' or "whack" and was meant to imitate the sound of blows landing,

b. In ancient Greek, koax was used as the sound of the frog cooking,

c. In Japanese, doki..doki is used to indicate the beating of a heart,

d. Where as in Hindi, the word dhadak (pr. Dhub - uck) is the word for a person is heartbeat, indicative of the sound of one single beat.

Sometimes onomatopoeia words are very tenuous relationship with the object the description, such as "bow-wow" in English and "wang…wong" in Chinese for the sound a dog makes. Some animals are named after the sounds they make, especially common in certain languages such as Maori and therefore in name for bird borrowed from these languages.

II. English Onomatopoeia

Occasionally, words for things are created from representations of the sounds these objects make. English, for example, there is the universal fastener, which is named for the onomatopoeic of the sound it makes, the "zip" (in the UK) less onomatopoeically "zipper" in the U.S.

Daughlas (1999:3) mentions that many birds are named from the onomatopoeic link with the calls they make, such as the Bob White quail, Chickadee, the cuckoo, the whoopy crane, and the whip-poor-will. In Pop culture, onomatopoeia appeared in some periods. In the 1960, TV series of "Batman" used some onomatopoeia such as "whack" and crunch that appeared on screen when said sound are made during fight scene.

Much onomatopoeia involved into full-feuded slang and eventually work they're into recognized words. Some examples include "ibang", which is common slang in ebonies. And hip hop, always urban slang in the term bagging process with a hard en sound as in the common alternate spelling hanging which means good, as in this "sfoo" is banging. This is also seen with word like "rat tat tat tat tat tat", a reference to gunfire. This can be sheriff in pop music and other music, slang, sub cultures and such as well as seen in the Harson's song "MMM BOP".

From 1997 and until 2003 there existed a progressive rock group called onomatopoeia. They played a rough cut symphonic rock composition. The band originated from mode, a town on the western Norwegian.

There is a loss in translation between physical actions and written interpretation. The loss was in interpretation between written interpretation and drawing as narrative. Drawing narrative as action and action as sound and sounds as description of intangibles with in space. Who reads comic? Do the users really understand or decipher the letters? Comics have transformed into animations on TV and computer games. Comics are consistent forms of beginning and adult readings, and comic books are predominantly fantasy. Comic books are escapism as Daughlas (1999:6) stated.

1. Sounds of Animal

For animal sounds, the following words are typically used in English. Some of these examples are taken from Mc Mordie (1970:  97).

Bee - "buzz",   Bird - "chirp", "tweet" Cat - "mereow" "miaow", "meow" ,"miow", "purr",   Chickadee - "chickadee", Chicken- "cluck", "cackle", "bawk", Cricket - "chirp", Crow- "caw", Cow -"moo', Dog - "woof", 'arf","grrr", Dove - 'coo", Dolphin - "click", Duck- "Quack", Flies - "buzz", Frog - "ribbit', "croak'. Note: many species of frog make different calls, Goat - "baa", Horse - "neigh", "winny', "snort", Owl - "hoo" or 'hoot", Insects - 'buzz", Lion - "roar", "rawr" Mouse -"squeak" Pigeon - "coo" Rooster- "tiktilaok" (PH), Turkey- "gobble" Snake-'hiss" Pig - 'oink", "wee-wee-wee", Sheep -"baa" Wolf-"howl", "aroo"

From the above examples, we can see that in English, most of the animals may produce their specific sounds. Different animals have different sounds, but some animals have the same sounds.

2. Sounds of Things

a. Some very common English-language examples of things sounds include:

Bang, Beep, Booing, Boom, Burp, Clap, Crackle, Hiccup, Ping pong, Plop, Poof, Thud, Tick-tock, Squish, Swoosh, Zap, Ka-boom, Ding-don,  Bam.

b. Machine sounds

Some very common of machine sounds are usually described with:

Automobile (horn) - "honk"

Automobile (engine) - "vroom"

Automobile (tires) "screech" for the tires

Train  (crossing a junction) - "clickety-clack",

Train (whistle) - "choo-choo"

Train (cash register) - "ka-ching"

Camera - "click"

Telephone - "ring"

Riffle/gun - "bang"

From the above examples, we can see that this sounds has the largest and various in numbers. The thing cannot produce their own sounds without the help from the third person to produce the sound that the things make.

3. Sounds of Nature

Some very common of nature sounds are usually described with:

Wind - "wuizz", Water - "splash", Tree breaking - "crack"     , Light - "flash", Bulb - "blab".

Sound of nature is the least one among the three above. From the examples we obtain, we can see that the sound that the nature produce is not far from the characteristics of the nature.

III. Indonesian Onomatopoeia

In Indonesia language, the term of onomatopoeia is called onomatope. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia of National Education Department (2005: 799) explains that onomatope is word that imitated the sounds or the voice of something produces, like the sound of a mouse is "cicit" and "kokok" is the sound of a cock.

Hanafi (1986: 37) says that onomatope or onomatopoeia is a word whose sound imitates the actual sound to which it refers, such as "gedebuk", "braak", and "kukuruyuk".  Poets use this onomatope or onomatopoeia in which the words they use sound like the very things being named or written about.

Onomatope or onomatopoeia has no limits to its usage. It is a long usage that can fit in many subjects. Having a voice and an ear one prerequisite it, unless one is without the use of hearing and speaking. Syahbana (2005: 2) says that just like English, in Indonesian language, onomatopoeia is formed from the sound it produces. Even there are some Names of the products taken from the sounds that it produces, such "mesin tik", "penjepret", "pemantik" and some others.

Syahbana (2005: 4) stated that in Indonesian, the sounds of animals do show a lot of variations. Meanwhile natural sounds other than the ones animals make are more interesting to observe because being remote from the human vocal apparatus. 

In Bahasa Indonesia natural sounds are challenged to the imaginations, but they are also much harder. The sound of a cat or a dog makes is easily identifiable everywhere, but when a heavy objects falls, the sound it makes varies according to what it is or what it falls on and different cultures that Indonesia has such as Java, Batak, Sunda, Papua, etc are going to divide up natural sounds in endless different ways. Besides, speakers of other native languages will choose to imitate natural sounds we don not even think of mimicking.

Let us see the things that just three cultures unrelated languages, choose to imitate (though transcribing the syllables they use would require too many phonetic symbols). For examples: The sound of a thing falls: it may produce, gedebuk, buuk, bruuk, gedubrak, gedebak, etc.

1. Sounds of Animal

For animal sounds, the following words are typically used in Indonesian. Some of these examples are taken from Moelyono (1988: 54)

Bee - "ngung" or "berdengung", Bird - "cicit", or "menicicit", Cat - "ngeong" or "mengeong", Chicken- "cicit" or "mencicit",  Crow- "gak..gak", Cow -"moo", "boo" or "melenguh", Dog - "guk…guk" or "menggonggong", Duck- "Kwek", Flies - "nguung" or "berdengung", Goat - "mbeek" or "mengembik", Horse - "hiii" or "meringkik", Lion - "aum" or "mengaum", Mouse -"ciit…ciit" or "mencicit", Rooster- "kukuruyuk" or "berkokok", Snake-'ssss" or "mendesis", Wolf-"auuu" or "melolong", Hen - "kotek" or "berkotek",

If we take a look back at those animals sounds, we can see some interesting habits across languages. The sound of the cat makes almost always begins with "m" as does the cow "moo" in English. There are probably some general human tendencies here too, probably exceeding primitive ones. Notice the way the thin sound that most small birds make is in like vowel in every one of the examples above.

From the examples above in Bahasa Indonesia, we could see that the verbs play an important role in creating some sentences. Although there are not verbs for the animals sound available.

2. Sounds of Things

a. Some very common Indonesian-language examples of things sounds include:

dor, bib, toing, buuk, puk, kretek, clup, kreek, sreet, tik..tik, toing, byaar, ting, tong, duar.

b. Machine sounds

Some very common of machine sounds in Indonesian language are usually described with:

Automobile (horn) - "tin..tin"

Automobile (engine) - "bruum"

Automobile (tires) "ciit" for the tires

Train  (crossing a junction) - "jus..jus", “juk gijak gijuk”

Train (whistle) - "tuut…tut"

Camera - "ckick" or "jepret"

Telephone - "kring" or "dring"

Riffle/gun - "dor"

3. Sounds of Nature

Some very common of nature sounds in Indonesian language are usually described with:

Wind - "siiir", Water - "cprat", Tree breaking - "kreek", Light - "gledar", Bulb - "duar".

In Indonesian language the sound produced can be used as a verb and as a noun. For examples:

A goat "mbeek" , Kami mendengar kambing itu mengembik (verb)

A door opened forcedly "dobrak", Polisi mendobrak pintu kamar para penjahat itu (verb)

A cigarette burn "kretek", Ayah membeli rokok kretek (noun)

A typewriter "tik…tik", Sekretaris itu menulis surat dengan sebuah mesin tik (noun).

From the above explanation and examples, we can see that onomatopoeia in Indonesian is not far different from English. And surely English onomatopoeia is not far different as well from any other language in this world. The sound of animal in Bahasa Indonesia has various sounds. Some animals may produce the same sounds from different animals. This also happens to English.

The verbs that support the existence of onomatopoeia in Bahasa Indonesia is very useful in creating some new sounds words, either from animals, things, and nature. Although we can see the verbs do not exist in the things, because the things need the third person to produce the sound.

Reference

Daughlas, Jim. 1999. The Use of Onomatopoeia and the examples in English. http// www.google.com./onomatopoeia.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2005.  Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Hanafi, Nurachman. 1986. Teori dan Seni Menerjemahkan. Ende: Nusa Indah.

Moeliono, Anton. 1988. Tata Bahasa Baku Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka

Mordie, Mc. W. 1970. English Idioms and How to Use Them. London: Oxford University Press.

Syahbana, Ahmad. 2005. Onomatope dalam Bahasa Indonesia. http// www.google.com./onomatope in Bahasa Indonesia.

Yule, George. 2001. The Study Of Language. Cambridge University Press.

Case Study Research

                       Case Study Research

Written by L.R.Gay, Geoffrey E. Mills and Peter Airasian in Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Application.  New Jersey: Pearson. 2009. pp. 426-435.

I. Definition
A case study research is a qualitative research approach in which researchers focus on a unit of study known as a bounded system (e.g., individual teachers, a classroom, or a school). A number of researchers have addressed the definition of a case, which is a concept that is sometimes difficult to grasp. Merriam  explained, the case is "a thing, a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries.

I can 'fence in' what I am going to study." Stake further ointed out, "Case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what is to be studied;"; similarly, Miles and Huberman (1994) described a case study as an investigation of a phenomenon that occurs within a specific context. In other words, if the phenomenon you want to study is not bounded, not identifiable within a specific context, it is not appropriately studied as a case study. Yin (2003) went beyond the definition of case to define case study research as a research strategy that is an all-encompassing method covering design, data collection techniques, and specific approaches to data analysis.

Taken together, these statements suggest that case study research is
- a qualitative approach to studying a phenomenon;
- focused on a unit of study, or a bounded system;
- not a methodological choice, but a choice of what
to study; an all-encompassing research method.

Furthermore, the term case study is used not only for the research approach but also for the product of case
study research. Case study research is unique in that it leads to a different kind of knowledge compared to other kinds of research. It is more concrete case study knowledge resonates with the readers' experiences because it is tangible and illuminative. It is rooted in the context of the study and is also related to the readers' knowledge, experience, and understandings as they  compare and contrast the case to their own life experiences. Case study knowledge is interpreted by readers who are affected not only by the context but also by the populations the reader has in mind.

Most important, what we learn from a single case is dependent on the ways in which the case is like and unlike other cases. This idea is sometimes called the "epistemology of the particular."  That is, the context of the case and the reader's prior knowledge and experiences affect how the reader is able to scaffold the case study and apply the findings to a similar context.

II. Characteristics
Case studies can be described as particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic. To say a case study is particularistic  means  that it is focused on a particular phenomenon, such as a situation or event. That is, a case study researcher may specifically choose a particular instance of a phenomenon under investigation to understand a specific problem that occurs in everyday practice. For example, a teacher may choose to conduct a case study of a child with special needs to understand the effectiveness of a specified Individualized Educational Plan (TEP).The case study can then supplement any data about the child gathered through standardized testing procedures. To say that a case study is descriptive means that the end result of the case study, the narrative, includes "thick description"  of the phenomenon that was the focus of the case study research—inclusion of many variables and analyses of their interactions .The term heuristic refers to the fact that case studies "illuminate the reader's understanding of the phenomenon under study," beyond the reader's original knowledge.

In short, one outcome of case study research is a narrative account that provides the researcher (and reader of the case study) with new insights into the way things are and into the kinds of relationships that exist among participants in the study.

Case study research can also be characterized by the disciplinary orientation the researcher brings to the case study. That is, different disciplinary fields use case study research for different purposes. Educational researchers frequently rely on the disciplines of anthropology, history, psychology, or sociology for their conceptual frameworks and for techniques for data collection, data analysis, and data interpretation.

Anthropological case studies on educational topics, for example, are influenced by the techniques commonly used in ethnographic research Mills' study of the culture of change in the McKenzie School District was as an ethnographic case study. In historical case studies, researchers use techniques commonly used in historical research. For example, researchers collect data from primary and secondary source materials. In education, this type of case study research has tended to focus on descriptions of institutions, programs, and practices, including how they have changed over time. Psychological case studies focus on the individual. Although Freud is most commonly associated with psychological case study research, the case studies conducted in psychology with an emphasis on learning are the ones most commonly cited by educational researchers. Sociological case study research typically focuses on the constructs of society and socialization in studying educational phenomena.

Regardless of the disciplinary orientation underpinning case study research, case studies can be characterized in terms of their overall intent. For example, is the case study researcher intending to be largely descriptive, or is the goal to contribute to existing theory or to evaluate an existing program? Although most case study research in education tends to be descriptive, the use of case studies in program evaluation has been well established: "Case studies are particularly valuable in program evaluation when the program is individualized, so the evaluation needs to be attentive to and capture individual differences among participants, diverse experiences of the program, or unique variations from one program setting to another. Regardless of the unit of analysis, a qualitative case study seeks to describe that unit in depth and detail, holistically and in context.

III. Designing
The process of designing a case study research project shares many of the design features of other qualitative approaches discussed in previous chapters. As with other qualitative research designs, a good case study research design includes a statement of the purpose of the research, initial research questions, review of related literature, and a rationale for the selection of the case (i.e., unit of analysis). Specifically, the case study researcher should:
1. Determine the research questions,
2. Define the case under study,
3. Determine the role of theory development in case
selection.
4. Determine the theoretical and conceptual framework of the case study.
5. Determine whether a single case study, a multiple case study, or a collective case study is appropriate.

A screening procedure may include the followingsteps:
1. Review documents about the proposed case study site to determine whether or not it is an appropriate choice.
2. Conduct informal interviews of key participants in the study to determine their willingness to participate in the study and to ensure that they fully understand the nature of their commitment over the length of the study.
3. Determine whether the case study participants have the necessary experience and knowledge of the phenomenon under investigation and the ability to provide information.

IV. Data Collection Techniques
Like other qualitative researchers, case study researchers use the same data collection techniques used by researchers conducting other genres of qualitative research (e.g., ethnographic research and narrative research) with the aim of seeking understanding about the case under investigation a case study researcher collects descriptive narrative and visual data to answer "how" and "why" questions. Furthermore, like other qualitative researchers, case study researchers are aware of the need to triangulate their data through the use of multiple data sources.

V. Conducting and Analyzing
In educational research it is common to find case study research undertaken about one phenomenon but at multiple sites. These studies are commonly referred to as collective case studies, multicase or multisite studies, or comparative case studies. Multiple case studies require cross-site analysis.

An unordered meta-matrix is a data management tool that enables the case study researcher to assemble master charts with descriptive data from each site on one large sheet of paper. In a site-ordered descriptive matrix, sites are ordered on a variable of interest so that the researcher can see differences.  A site-ordered predictor-outcome matrix moves the case study researcher from working descriptively/deductively to a more explanatory/interpretive mode. A time-ordered meta-matrix extends the cross-site analysis to include chronology as an organizing variable.

Scatterplots are visual displays of data from all the case study sites based on dimensions or themes of interest that appear to be related to each other. A site-ordered effects matrix is used by case study researchers to sort through the research sites and to display probable cause and effect relations. Causal models extend the case study analysis and assist the case study researcher to identify how things go together.