Dimensions of Social Sciences Research

          Dimensions of Social Sciences Research
 

 Written by Johann Mouton in Basic Concepts in the Methodology of the Social Sciences. 1996. Human Sciences Research Council. South Africa. pp. 7-15.



In terms of this model research in the social sciences would be defined as follows:
Social sciences research is a collaborative human activity in which social reality is studied objectively with the aim of gaining a valid understanding of it.

The following dimensions of research in the social sciences are emphasized in this definition
a. the sociological dimension: scientific research is a joint or collaborative activity;

b. the ontological dimension: research in the social sciences is always directed at an aspect or aspects of social reality;

c. the ideological dimension: as a human activity, research in the social sciences is intentional and goal-directed, its main aim being the understanding of phenomena;

d. the epistemological dimension: the aim is not merely to understand phenomena, but rather to provide a valid and reliable understanding of reality;

e. the methodological dimension: research in the social sciences may be regarded as objective by virtue of its being critical, balanced, unbiased,systematic, and controllable.

Research can be discussed from various perspectives.
a. From the sociological perspective, one is interested in highlighting the social nature of research as a typical human activity — as praxis. The sociological dimension of research cannot be ignored in any analysis of the process of research. In this book we shall refer to sociological factors where we consider that they ought to be taken into account because of their effect on methodological considerations.

b. The ontologial dimension emphasizes that research always has an object — be it empirical or non-empirical. The variety of perspectives of man and society,associated with divergent domain assumptions, leads to a situation where one cannot talk about the research domain of the social sciences. The content of the ontological dimension of research in the social sciences must, as is the case in the other dimensions, be regarded as variable.

c. When one looks at research within the ideological perspective, one wants to stress that research is goal-driven and purposive. Research is not a mechanical or merely automatic process, but is directed towards specifically human goals of understanding and gaining insight and explanation.

d. The epistemological dimension focuses on the fact that this goal of understanding or gaining insight should always be further clarified in terms of what would be regarded as “proper” or “good” understanding. Traditionally ideals of truth and wisdom have been pursued by scientists. More recently other ideals — problem solving, verisimilitude, validity, and so on — have been put forward.The primary aim of research in the social sciences is to generate valid findings, i.e. that the findings should approximate reality as closely as possible.

e. Finally, the methodological dimension of research refers to the ways in which these various ideals may be attained. It also refers to such features as the systematic and methodical nature of research and why such a high premium is placed on being critical and balanced in the process of research.

Cara Menulis Latar Belakang (Background of the Study)

                               Cara Menulis Latar Belakang (Background of the Study)

 
             Written by Ari Julianto

Latar Belakang (Background of the Study) merupakan sub-judul awal dari BAB I (CHAPTER I) PENDAHULUAN (INTRODUCTION). Pada bagian ini diuraikan hal yang menjadi latar belakang penelitian ini dilakukan. Uraian dimulai dari hal-hal secara umum yang menjadi latar belakang sesuai dengan topik penelitian, kemudian mengerucut kepada hal-hal secara khusus.

Jika topik penelitian adalah pada perusahaan, maka diuraikan secara khusus kondisi, fakta, dan fenomena yang ditemui di perusahaan yang menyangkut kepada topik penelitian. Fenomena yang dimaksud disini adalah gejala-gejala yang yang mengarah kepada perumusan masalah, misalnya Anda bayangkan seorang pasien yang berobat ke dokter, maka dokter akan melakukan interview untuk mendapatkan gejala atau symptoms (misalnya kepala pening, muntah-muntah, rasa tidak enak dilambung) dan melakukan diagnosa untuk mendapatkan fenomena misalnya tidak ada tanda-tanda alergi. Fenomena inilah yang akan menjadi dasar bagi dokter untuk melakukan perumusan masalah yakni jenis gangguannya.

Dalam Latar Belakang (Background of the Study), hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan adalah:
a. Uraian latar belakang bersifat umum sesuai dengan topik penelitian,
b. Uraian latar belakang bersifat umum, tetapi lebih khusus dibandingkan dengan paragraf pertama,karena telah memasuki awal topik mengenai teknologi informasi,
c. Uraian latarbelakang bersifat khusus, karena telah mengerucut kepada fenomena-fenomena diperusahaan. Fenomena-fenomena inilah yang akan digunakan sebagai dasar melakukan identifikasi masalah dan sesuatu yang ingin diselesaikan pada penelitian.

Menurut Bowker (2007: 37), pendahuluan umumnya diawali dengan sebuah pernyataan yang umum yang mencerminkan topik atau konteks skripsi/thesis. Disyarankan olehnya juga:
a. Tanyakanlah pada diri Anda sendiri melalui pendahuluan “Who, What, When, Where, How, dan/atau Why?,
b. Masukan juga literatur hasil tulisan dan riset terdahulu berkaiatan dengan topik skripsi/thesis Anda. Anda juga bisa memasukkan mengapa topik riset Anda penting,
c. Arahkan tulisan Anda untuk memperjelas pembaca kemana Anda akan bawa mereka dengan peneiltian tersebut,
d. Di akhir pendahluan, fokus dikerucut menjadi thesis statement. (Anda boleh memulai tulisan Pendahuluan dengan thesis statement.
 
Lebih lanjut, Wallwork (2011: 197) menyarankan bahwa pendahuluan umumnya menjawab sejumlah pertanyaan seperti berikut:
a. Apa permasalahan Anda?
b. Apakah ada solusi yang Anda tawarkan?
c. Jika ada beberapa solusi, yang manakah yang terbaik?
d. Apa batasan utama dalam penelitian Anda?
e. Apa yang Anda harapkan untuk diperoleh nantinya?
f. Sudahkah Anda memperoleh apa yang Anda rencanakan dalam penelitian?

 Menurut panduan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2007), Latar Belakang Masalah memaparkan:
a. permasalahan umum yang menjadi landasan fokus masalah yang akan diteliti
b. faktor-faktor yang melatarbelakangi masalah tersebut muncul:
(1) Faktor yang melatarbelakangi permasalahan digambarkan dengan kenyataan yang ada, misalnya kemampuan guru biologi dalam penggunaan metode CTL rendah. Paparkan fakta yang mendukung, seperti hasil pengamatan kita saat melakukan supervisi.

(2) Berilah argumentasi mengapa kemampuan tersebut rendah, misalnya guru kurang berminat untuk mencoba, sulit mengaplikasikan meteri dengan metode, tugas-tugas tidak mendorong aktivitas siswa. Dalam memberi argumentasi ini dilakukan analisis yang didasari suatu bukti nyata berdasarkan pengalaman sendiri saat melakukan obeservasi guru mengajar di kelas.

(3) Berilah argumentasi perkiraan pemecahan yang diharapkan dapat mengatasi masalah, misalnya bila masalah yang dominan adalah teknik pelatihan, maka pilihlah teknik pelatihan yang dianggap dapat meningkatkan kemampuan guru dalam mengajar biologi dengan metode CTL. Contoh, teknik problem solving sebagai upaya peningkatan kemampuan guru menerapkan metode CTL dalam mengajar biologi di SMA.

(4) Berilah argumentasi kelebihan dari teknik Problem Solving, sehingga penelitian diharapkan dapat memecahkan masalah tersebut, atau dengan kata lain dapat menutup atau setidaktidaknya memperkecil kesenjangan itu.
3. Mengerucutkan permasalahan menjadi lebih fokus pada variabel penelitian.

Satu hal yang perlu diingat dan sering diabaikan dalam penulisan Latar Belakang (Background of the Study) adalah:
a. Menyebutkan alasan mengapa Anda memilih variable x (misalnya writing),
b. Menyebutkan alasan mengapa Anda emilih variable y (misalnya process approach),
c. Menyebutkan alasan mengapa Anda memilih jenis penelitian tersebut (misalnya dampak, pengaruh atau the effect, hubungan atau correlation, dan sebagainya)

Pada paragraf akhir, berilah pernyataan tegas mengapa Anda memilih topik judul skripsi/thesis Anda dengan berdasarkan uraian dan penjelasan yang telah disebutkan pada beberapa paragraf sebelumnya.

Jadi, secara ringkas dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut melalui contoh sebuah judul skripsi.

PENGARUH MOTIVASI KERJA KARYAWAN TERHADAP PRODUKTIVITAS KERJA KARYAWAN PT X DI MEDAN

• Thesis Statement - Pentingnya produktivitas kerja karyawan untuk meningkatkan hasl produksi di sebuah perusahaan.
• Dalam kegiatan produksi faktor tenaga kerja (karyawan) mempunyaipengaruh besar.
• Karyawan pada hakekatnya merupakan salah satu unsur yang menjad sumber daya dalam perusahaan.
• Agar pekerja dapat melaksanakan tugasnya dengan baik,maka di dalam perusahaan diciptakan sistem manajemen yang dikenal dengan manajemen kepegawaian.
• Karyawan suatu perusahaan akan dapat bekerja dengan baik dalam menghasilkan suatu barang apabila mereka mempunyai minat dan semangat terhadap pekerjaan tersebut.
• Dengan demikian diperlukan suatu motivator bagi karyawan yaitu berupa pemenuhan kebutuhan fisik dan non fisik.
• Definisi Motivasi menurt para ahli.
• Pentingya motivasi bagi karyawan.
• Alasan penulis memilih motivasi kerja.
• Masalah yang dihadapi berupa produktivitas yang menurun di P.T X di Medan.
• Menunjukkan bukti adanya masalah produktivitas di P.T. X (bila perlu)
• Alasan penulis memilih pengaruh motivasi kerja karyawan terhadap produktivitas kerja karyawan.

Reference:
Bowker, Natilene. 2007. Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing Massey University.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2008. Penulisan Karya Ilmiah. Direktorat Tenaga Kependidikan, Direktorat Jenderal Peningkatan Mutu Pendidik dan Tenaga Kepednidikan: Jakarta.

Wallwork, Adrian. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers. New York: Springer.




Semoga pembahasan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amin.

Differences between Master’s and Doctoral Theses

                            Differences between Master’s 
                                   and Doctoral Theses

Written by Brian Paltridge and Sue Starfiel in Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a Second Language, A handbook for supervisors. 2007. Routledge. New York.pp.55-56.

An important point for students to consider before they write their research proposal is the degree they are writing it for, and what that degree requires of them. A number of writers have discussed differences in expectations between master’s and doctoral theses, and their characterizing features (e.g. Madsen 1992; Elphinstone and Schweitzer 1998; Tinkler and Jackson 2000).

It is important for students to understand these differences at the outset of their research project, as this will impact on the focus and scale of the project they plan to undertake, and, in turn, the research proposal they  write.As Madsen (1992) points out, generally a doctoral thesis has greater breadth, depth and intention than a master’s thesis.

Below is a summary of the distinction he makes between a master’s dissertation and a doctoral thesis.

A master’s dissertation demonstrates:
● an original investigation or the testing of ideas;
● competence in independent work or experimentation;
● an understanding of appropriate techniques as well as their limitations;
● an expert knowledge of the published literature on the topic under investigation;
● evidence of the ability to make critical use of published work and source materials;
● an appreciation of the relationship between the research topic and the wider field of knowledge;
● the ability to present the work at an appropriate level of literary quality.

A doctoral thesis demonstrates:
● all of the above, plus:
● a distinct contribution to knowledge, as shown by the topic under investigation, the methodology employed, the discovery of new facts, or interpretation of the findings.

In scope, the doctoral thesis differs from a master’s research degree by its deeper, more comprehensive treatment of the subject under investigation (Elphinstone and Schweitzer 1998).

A doctoral thesis is also required to demonstrate authority in the area of research. That is, the student is expected to have an expert and up-to-date knowledge of the area of study and research that is relevant to their particular topic.

The thesis also needs to be written in succinct, clear, error-free English. At the doctoral level, examiners are often asked whether the thesis contains material that is in some way worthy of publication. The issue of a ‘distinct contribution to knowledge’ is an important consideration at the doctoral level.

In short, has the writer carried out a piece of work that demonstrates that a research apprenticeship is complete and that the student ‘should be admitted to the community of scholars in the discipline?’

A study carried out by Tinkler and Jackson (2000) in Great Britain found that while there was a large amount of agreement among the  criteria used by universities for defining doctoral theses, the actual examination of the thesis was often conceptualized, and carried out, in rather different ways. It is therefore important for students to be aware of the criteria their university will use for assessing their thesis.

Teori Ilmiah

                                         Teori Ilmiah

        Written by Ari Julianto

Umumnya sebuah teori mengandung dugaan, spekulasi, anggapan, proposisi, hipotesis, penjelasan, model dan sebagainya. Asal kata Teori dari Bahasa Yunani theorein yang berarti mengamati, mempertimbangkan dan kata bendanya theoría berarti pemerhatian, pengamatan atau observasi.

1. Pengertian Teori
Dalam beberapa kamus, kata teori didefinisikan sebagai berikut:
- Tim redaksi (2008: 1684) 1. Pendapat yg didasarkan pada penelitian dan penemuan, didukung oleh data dan argumentasi; 2. penyelidikan eksperimental yg mampu menghasilkan fakta berdasarkan ilmu pasti, logika, metodologi, argumentasi;  3. Asas dan hukum umum yg menjadi dasar suatu kesenian atau ilmu pengetahuan; 4. pendapat, cara, dan aturan untuk melakukan sesuatu.

- Editorial Team (7389) teori adalah (1) a. pengetahuan yang terorganisir sistematis dalam beragam keadaan luas khususnya sistem asumsi, prinsip yang diterima serta prosedur peraturanyang dipakai untuk menganalisis, memprediksi atau menjelaskan hakikat sebuah fenomena tertentub. (2) Alasan abstrak, spekulasi. (3) suatu keyakinan yang membimbing tindakan atau bantuan untuk memhamai atau menilai sesuatu.(4)suatu asumsi yang didasarkan pada informasi atau pengetahuan terbatas.

2. Unsur-unsur Teori
Di dalam sebuah teori terdapat unsur-unsur yang mengikutinya.
(1) Konsep (Concept)
Sebuah ide yang diekspresikan dengan simbol atau kata. Konsep merupakan istilah yang digunakan untuk menggambarkan secara abstrak suatu objek. Melalui konsep diharapkan akan dapat menyederhanakan pemikiran melalui sebuah istilah. Konsep merupakan ide abstrak yang digunakan untuk mengklasifikasi objek-objek yang biasanya dinyatakan dalam suatu istilah kemudian dituangkan dalam contoh dan bukan contoh, sehingga seseorang dapat mengerti konsep dengan jelas. Dengan konsep maka seseorang dapat menggolongkan dunia sekitarnya menggunakan konsep itu.

Konsep itu sendiri dapat digolongkan menjadi tiga bentuk:
a. Ilata
Konsep yang masih sangat umum dan memiliki makna yang sangat luas, misalnya "Sekolah Tinggi"

b. Abstrakta
Konsep yang memiliki makna yang lebih sempit bila dibandingkan dengan ilata "Sekolah Tinggi", misalnya “Ilmu Manajemen dan Informatika”.

c. Konkreta
Konsep yang memiliki makna lebih spesifik bila dibandingkan dengan yang lainnya, misalnya adalah "Jurusan Administrasi" dari Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Manajemen dan Informatika.

(2) Ruang Lingkup (Scope)
Sebuah konsep ada yang bersifat abstrak dan yang bersifat kongkret. Teori dengan konsep-konsep yang abstrak dapat diaplikasikan terhadap fenomena sosial yang lebih luas, dibanding dengan teori yang memiliki konsep-konsep yang kongkret.

(3) Keterkaitan (Relationship)
Bagaimana konsep-konsep saling berhubungan dengan menyatakan sebab-akibat atau proposisi. Proposisi adalah sebuah pernyataan teoritis yang memperincikan hubungan antara dua atau lebih variable, memberitahu kita bagaimana variasi dalam satu konsep dipertangggung jawabkan oleh variasi dalam konsep yang lain.

2. Klasifikasi Teori Berdasarkan Dimensi
Menurut Bordens dan Abbott(2008), teori dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga dimensi, antara lain:
(1) Aspek kuantitatif dan kualitatif
(2) Tingkat Deskripsi, dan
(3) Ruang Lingkup atau Domain

3. Pengertian Teori Ilmiah
a. Menurut Ary, et al (2000), teori ilmiah adalah suatu himpunan pengertian (construct atau concept) yang saling berkaitan, batasan, serta proposisi yang menyajikan pandangan sistematis tentang gejala-gejala dengan jalan menetapkan hubungan yang ada di antara variable-variabel, dan dengan tujuan untuk menjelaskan serta meramalkan gejala-gejala tersebut.
b. Teori ilmiah adalah sebuah set proposisi yang terdiri dari konsep-konsep yang telah didefinisikan secara jelas.
c. Teori ilmiah adalah penjelasan mengenai hubungan antar konsep atau variabel.
d. Teori ilmiah adalah penjelasan mengenai fenomena-fenomena dengan cara menspesifikasikan hubungan antar variabel.

4. Kegunaan Teori Ilmiah dalam Penelitian
a. Sebagai acuan dalam pengkajian suatu masalah.
b. Sebagai dasar dalam merumuskan kerangka teoritis penelitian.
c. Sebagai dasar dalam merumuskan hipotesis.
d. Sebagai informasi untuk menetapkan cara pengujian hipotesis.
e. Untuk mendapatkan informasi historis dan perspektif permasalahan yang akan diteliti.
f. Memperkaya ide-ide baru.
g. Untuk mengetahui siapa saja peneliti lain dan pengguna di bidang yang sama.

5. Hubungan teori ilmiah dengan fakta
a. Fakta memprakarsai teori ilmiah.
b. Fakta memformulasikan kembali teori-teori ilmiah.
c. Fakta dapat dijadikan dasar untuk menolak teori ilmiah.
d. Fakta memperjelas teori ilmiah.


Referensi
Ary, Jacobs, dan Razavieh. 2000. Pengantar Penelitian dalam Pendidikan. (Alih Bahasa : Arief Furchan).Surabaya : Usaha Nasional.
Bordens, Kenneth S. and Bruce B. Abbott. 2008. Research Design and Methods A Process Approach. New York:McGraw-Hill.
Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
Tim Redaksi. 2008. Kamus Bahasa Indonesia.Jakarta: Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional

Semoga pembahasan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amien.

Using Theory in Research

Using Theory in Research

Written by Kenneth S. Bordens and Bruce B. Abbott in Research Design and Methods, A Process Approach. New York. McGraw-Hill, pp. 32-47.
 

1. Definition
A theory is a partially verifi ed statement of a scientific relationship that cannot be directly observed. If the theory is stated formally, this statement consists of a set of interrelated propositions (and corollaries to those propositions) that attempt to specify the relationship between a variable (or set of variables) and some behavior. Not all scientific theories are expressed this way, but most could be.

2. Theory Versus Hypothesis
Students often confuse theory with hypothesis, and even professionals sometimes use these terms interchangeably. However, as usually defi ned, theories are more complex than hypotheses.

3. Theory Versus Law
A theory that has been substantially verifi ed is sometimes called a law. However, most laws do not derive from theories in this way. Laws are usually empirically verifi ed, quantitative relationships between two or more variables and thus are not normally subject to the disconfirmation that theories are.

4. Theory Versus Model
Like theory, the term model can refer to a range of concepts. In some cases, it is simply used as a synonym for theory. However, in most cases model refers to a specific implementation of a more general theoretical view.

5. Classifying Theories
Theories can be classified along several dimensions. Three important ones are
(1) quantitative or qualitative aspect,
(2) level of description, and
(3) scope (or domain) of the theory.

In light of these distinctions, we’ve organized our discussion by posing three questions that you can ask about any theory:
(1) Is the theory quantitative or qualitative?
(2) At what level of description does the theory operate?
(3) What is the theory’s domain?

6. Roles of Theory in Science
Theories have several roles to play in science. These roles include providing an understanding of the phenomena for which they account, providing a basis for prediction, and guiding the direction of research.
(1) Understanding
At the highest level, theories represent a particular way to understand the phenomena with which they deal. To the degree that a theory models an underlying reality, this understanding can be deep and powerful.

(2) Prediction
Even when theories do not provide a fundamental insight into the mechanisms of a behaving system (as descriptive theories do not), they at least can provide a way to predict the behavior of the system under different values of its controlling variables.

(3) Organizing and Interpreting Research Results
A theory can provide a sound framework for organizing and interpreting research results. For example, the results of an experiment designed to test Piaget’s theory will be organized within the existing structure of confi rmatory and disconfirmatory results. This organization is preferable to having a loose conglomeration of results on a topic.

(4) Generating Research
Finally, theories are valuable because they often provide ideas for new research. This is known as the heuristic value of a theory. The heuristic value of a theory is often independent of its validity. A theory can have heuristic value even when it is not supported by subsequent empirical research.

7. Characteristics of A Good Theory
In the history of psychology, many theories have been advanced to explain behavioral phenomena. Some of these theories have stood the test of time, whereas others have fallen by the wayside. Whether or not a theory endures depends on several factors, including the following.
(1) Ability to Account for Data
To be of any value, a theory must account for most of the existing data within its domain. Note that the amount of data is “most” rather than “all” because at least some of the data may in fact be unreliable. A theory can be excused for failing to account for erroneous data.

(2) Explanatory Relevance
A theory also must meet the criterion of explanatory relevance. That is, the explanation for a phenomenon provided by a theory must offer good grounds for believing that the phenomenon would occur under the specified conditions.

(3) Testability
A theory is testable if it is capable of failing some empirical test. That is, the theory specifi es outcomes under particular conditions, and if these outcomes do not occur, then the theory is rejected.

(4) Prediction of Novel Events
A good theory should predict new phenomena. Within its domain, a good theory should predict phenomena beyond those for which the theory was originally designed. Strictly speaking, such predicted phenomena do not have to be new in the sense of not yet observed. Rather, they must be new in the sense that they were not taken into account in the formulation of the theory.

(5) Parsimony
a theory should account for phenomena within its domain in the simplest terms possible and with the fewest assumptions. If there are two competing theories concerning a behavior, the one that explains the behavior in the simplest terms is preferred under the law of parsimony.

Example of Students' Needs Questionnaire

          


          Example of Students' Needs Questionnaire

                                                        Suggested by 
                          David Nunan. 1999 in Second Language Teaching & Learning. 
                                               Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publisher.
==================================================================
Name  :
Class:

Instruction
Circle a number on the right on what you like to learn and how you like to learn. The following key is the indication of your attitude and needs in learning English.

Key:
1.I don’t like this at all
2.I don’t like this very much
3.This is OK
4.I quite like this
5.I like this very much

I. Topics
In my English class, I would like to study topics………………………….
1. about me, my feelings, attitudes, beliefs, etc          1     2    3    4    5
2. from my academic subject: social, science etc       1     2    3    4    5
3. from popular culture: music, film etc                    1     2    3    4    5
4. about current affairs and issues                            1     2    3    4    5
5. that are controversial: underage drinking etc          1     2    3    4    5

II. Methods
In my English class, I would like to learn by……………………………
6. small groups discussion and problem solving          1     2    3    4    5
7. formal language study e.g studying from textbook   1     2    3    4    5
8. listening to the teacher                                          1     2    3    4    5
9. watching videos                                                   1     2    3    4    5
10. doing individual work                                          1     2    3    4    5

III. Language Areas
This year, I most want to improve my……………………………
11. listening                                                            1     2    3    4    5
12. speaking                                                           1     2    3    4    5
13. reading                                                             1     2    3    4    5
14. writing                                                              1     2    3    4    5
15. grammar                                                           1     2    3    4    5
16. pronunciation                                                     1     2    3    4    5

IV. Out of Class
Out of class, I like to ……………………………
17. practice in the independent learning center                   1     2    3    4    5
18. have conversations with native speakers of English       1     2    3    4    5
19. practice Engl;ish with my friends                                1     2    3    4    5
20. collect examples of English that I find interesting/         1     2    3    4    5
      Puzzling
21. watch TV / read newspapers in English                       1     2    3    4    5

V. Assessment
I like to find out how much my English is improving by……………………………
22. having the teacher assess my written works                      1     2    3    4    5
23. having my teacher correct my mistakes in class                 1     2    3    4    5
24. checking my own progress / correcting my own mistakes  1     2    3    4    5
25. being corrected by my fellow students                              1     2    3    4    5
26. seeing if I can use the language in real-life situations           1     2    3    4    5

Ragam Jenis Penelitian

                            Ragam Jenis Penelitian

Written by Ari Julianto

Penelitian dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi bermacam-macam. Klasifikasi tersebut dapat dilakukan berdasarkan beberapa tinjauan. Secara umum setiap ilmu pengetahuan bertujuan mengembangkan ilmu baru dan secara khusus ilmu pengetahuan bertujuan:
1. menggambarkan (to describe)
2. meramalkan (to predict)
3. mengendalikan (to control)
4. menerangkan (to explain)

Namun, beberapa ahli dan penulis memiliki klasifikasi yang berbeda tergantung dari sudut pandang dan penilaian mereka masing-masing. Berikut rangkuman jenis-jenis penelitian ditinjau dari beragam aspek.
P = Penelitian
R = Research
S = Studi/Study

1. Berdasarkan Bidang Ilmu
a. P. Pendidikan (Educational R.)
b. P. Kedokteran (Medical R.)
c. P. Keperawatan (Nursing R.)
dan sebagainya

2. Berdasarkan Pendekatan dan Bentuk Data
a. P. Kuantitatif (Quantitative R.)
b. P. Kualitatif (Qualitative R.)

3. Berdasarkan Tempat
a. P. Perpustakaan (Library R.)
b. P. Laborartorium (Laboratory R.)
c. P. Lapangan (Field R.)

4. Berdasarkan Pemakaiannya
a. P. Murni (Pure R. or Basic R.)
b. P. Terapan (Applied R.)

5. Berdasarkan Tujuan Umumnya
a. P. Eksploratif (Explorative R.)
b. P. Pengembangan (Developmental R.)
c. P. verifikatif (Verificative R.)

6. Berdasarkan Tarafnya
a. P. Deskriptif (Descriptive R.)
b. P. Analitik    (Analytic R.)

7. Berdasarkan Metode dan Pendekatan Sumber
a. P. Longitudinal(Longitudinal R.)
b. P. penampang-silang (Cross-sectional R.)

8. Menurut Pembentukan Ilmu
a. P. Induktif (Inductive R.)
b. P. Deduktif (Deductive R.)

9. Menurut Paradigma Keilmuan
a. P. Positivisme (Positivism R.)
b. P. Rasionalisme (Rationalism R.)
c. P. Fenomenologi (Phenomenology R.)

10. Menurut Strategi dan jenis data
a. P. Opini (Opinion R.)
b. P. Empiris (Emphirical R.)
c. P. Kearsipan (Archival R.)
d. P. Analitis (Analytical R.)

11. Menurut Sumbernya
a. P.Historis (Historical R.)
b. P.Deskriptif  (Descriptive R.)
c. P.Perkembangan (Developmental R.)
d. S.Kasus/Lapangan (Field/Case S.)
e. P.Korelasional (Correlational R.)
f. P.Eksperimental sungguhan Real Experimental R.)
g. P.Eksperimental semu (Quasi Experimental R.)
h. P.Kausal-komparatif (Causal Comprative R.)
i. P.Tindakan (Action R.)

12. Berdasarkan Karakteristik Masalah
a. P. Historis (Historical R.)
b. P. Desktriptif  (Descriptive R.)
c. Studi kasus lapangan (Field/Case S.)
d. P.Korelasional (Correlational R.)
e. P.Kausal-komparatif (Causal Comparative R.)
f. P.Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

13. Menurut Tingkat Eksplanasi
a. P. Deskriptif (Descriptive R.)
b. P. Komparatif(Comparative R.)
c. P. Asosiatif (Associative R.)

14. Menurut Caranya
a.P. Operasional (Operational R.)
b.P. Tindakan (Action R.)
c.P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

15. Menurut Metodenya
a. P. Survei (Survey R.)
b. P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)
c. P. Expose Facto
d. P. Naturalistik/Alamiah
e. P. Tindakan (Action R.)
f. P. Evaluasi (Evaluation R.)
g. P. Kebijakan (Judisficational R.)
h. P. Sejarah (Historical R.)

16. Menurut Saat Terjadi Variabel   
a. P. Historis (Historical R.)
b. P. Ekspos Facto (Expose Facto R.)
c. P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)

17. Menurut Manfaat Penelitian
a. P. Dasar/ Murni (Basic/Pure R.)
b. P. Terapan (Applied R.)
   (1) P. Tindakan (Action R.)
   (2) P. Evaluatif (Evaluative R.)
   (3) P. Formatif (Formative R.)
   (4) P. Sumatif (Summative R.)

18. Waktu Penelitian
a. P. Cross Sectional
b. P. Longitudinal/Time Series
   (1). Panel S.
   (2). Time Series
   (3) Cohort S.

19. Teknik Pengumpulan Data
a. Data Kuantitatif (Quantitative R.)
   (1) P. Eksperimen (Experimental R.)
   (2) P. Survei (Survey R.)
   (3) P. Analisis isi (Content analisis R.)
   (4) P. Existing statistic
b. Data Kualitatif (Qualitative R.)
   (1). P. Lapangan (field research)
   (2). P. Sejarah (Historical R.)

(Dikutip dan disimpulkan dari beragam sumber literatur)

Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amien.

Kinanthi's Social Vulnerability in Tasaro GK's Novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali (2)

Tasaro GK

Kinanthi's Social Vulnerability in Tasaro GK's Novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali (2)

Written by Ari Julianto






III. The Indicators of Kinanthi’s Social Vulnerability
In this study, the word ‘indicator’ means a pointer or an index. Some broad indicators appear repeatedly in social vulnerability analyses, although it is possible to choose different proxies for each indicator. The vulnerability indicators used in this study are gender, race and age.
Rygel (2006: 748) states that in general, poor people living in vulnerability more vulnerable than the wealthy to disasters as well as gender, race and age. Of the various institutional environments that tend to sustain a multitude of economic barriers to different groups, it is discrimination based on race and gender that create the most insidious obstructions.

1. Age
United Nations (2008: 71) describes that children should not be treated merely as small adults: they are uniquely vulnerable in ways that differ from the vulnerability of adults. They are vulnerable to the demands and expectations of those in authority, including their parents, extended family and teachers. Physically, they are not able to protect themselves.

a. Vulnerable at teen’s period
At teenager period, Kinanthi experiences a very difficult life. This is actually the beginning of her social vulnerability. Her real age is fourteen, but it is faked three years older so that it will be easy for her agent to sell Kinanthi to a new employer. This is revealed when she is in KBRI (Embassy of Indonesian Republic).

2. Race
Fothergill (2004: 95) describes that discrimination also plays a major role in increasing the vulnerability of racial and ethnic minorities. In particular, real estate discrimination may confine minorities to certain hazard-prone areas or hinder minorities in obtaining policies with more-reliable insurance companies. When minorities are immigrants from non-English-speaking countries, language difficulties can greatly increase vulnerability to a disaster.

United Nations (2008: 74) describes that the status of an individual within his or her environment, whether that status is defined through formal systems (such as a legal system) or informal systems, creates different levels of vulnerability.

a. Discriminated by Arabian employers
Saudi Arabia is a rich and wealthy country and the condition is contrary to Indonesia. Although Saudi Arabia and Indonesia are Moslems countries, the race between them shows that there is discrimination. Kinanthi feels that she has been discriminated for her status and ethnic.

The discrimination for being an Indonesian maid who works in Saudi Arabia that Kinanthi has either in Saudi, Kuwait or in America makes her vulnerable in social life. This condition becomes worse when she gets torture, evil deeds and even having without payment.

3.Gender
United Nations (2008: 72) describes that women are vulnerable because they are frequently excluded from mainstream economic and social systems, such as employment, higher education, and legal as well as political parity. They are often the hidden victims of war and conflict, and this vulnerability extends to their status as displaced persons or refugees. It is also arguably exacerbated by their “relatively unequal” (secondary) status in the family and society more generally. Women are vulnerable to rape, domestic violence, harmful traditional practices, trafficking and lack of or limited access to resources. Many of these gender-based conditions of vulnerability are linked to social and cultural conditions.

a. Vulnerable as a young girl
Being a young girl is a vulnerable condition for Kinanthi especially supported by her poverty, background and ethnics. She experiences many painful life that ends in America. Miranda, a volunteer who works in America many years sees that Kinanthi as a young girl feels a deeply social vulnerability aAs a young girl, Kinanthi also feels vulnerable and she has to follow her destiny after losing her only best friend in Bandung, Euis. This condition brings vulnerability for Kinanthi.

IV. Reference
Aysan, Y. F. 1993. Keynote Paper: Vulnerability Assessment. In: P. Merriman and C. Browitt, eds., Natural Disasters: Protecting Vulnerable Communities, pp. 1-14.

Adger, W. Neil. 1998. Indicators Of Social And Economic Vulnerability To Climate Change In Vietnam. Working Paper. Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment University of East Anglia and University College London.

Blaikie, P. et al.1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability, and Disasters. New York: Routledge.

Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.

Fothergill, A. and Peek, L.A. 2004. Poverty And Disasters In The United States: A review of recent sociological findings, Natural Hazards 32, 89–110.

Luthar, S. S., and Zigler, E. 1991. Vulnerability and Competence: A review of research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 6–22.

Roecklenein, J.E. 2006. Elsevier's Dictionary of Psychological Theories. Netherland: Elsevier B.V.

Rygel, Lisa et al. 2006. A Method For Constructing A Social Vulnerability Index: an application to hurricane storm surges in a developed country. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change.741–764. Springer.

Tasaro, GK. 2012. Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali.Bentang Pustaka: Yogyakarta.

United Nations. 2008. An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and Action. New York: UNODC.

I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.

Kinanthi's Social Vulnerability in Tasaro GK's Novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali (1)

Tasaro GK's Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali

Kinanthi's Social Vulnerability in Tasaro GK's Novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali (1)

Written by Ari Julianto







I. Preface
The first time I saw the cover of Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel written by Tasaro GK, I had no idea what the interesting side I could find in it since the illustration of the cover which is dominated in red colour, is just like a novel for kids.

There are a boy on the left and a girl on the right with different backgrounds beside them. Both are looking at the sky.  My interest came after I read the moment when Kinanthi's parents exchanged or I can say it 'sold' Kinanthi to one of her father's friends just for 50 kg of rice because of their poverty. Then, I tried to finish reading this novel which is written by a successful writer that (honestly) none of his works I have read before.

When I finish reading this novel, I thought to myself that this is a potrait of an Indonesia woman whose childhood grabbed by the poverty of the family. Indeed, Tasaro GK is a successful writer. This I could see from the beautiful words he chose in expressing certain situation and condition.

I tried to analyze the content of this novel and finally I could draw that Kinanthi's social vulnerability can be used as the topic of a literature research. In analyzing this novel I tried to reveal the causes and the indicators of Kinanthi's social vulnerability. I did not analyze the sadness aspect because since the beginning until the end of this novel, I found the sadness aspect covers Kinanthi's life.Here are the findings that I could draw from this novel.

II. The Causes of Kinanthi’s Social Vulnerability
Aysan (1993: 10) describes that the causes of social vulnerability include rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health, low levels of education, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of access to resources and services, including knowledge and technological means, disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes include; stress, depressions, hazards and loss.

1.Poverty
Adger (1998: 7) and Blaikie et al. (1994: 48) describe that poverty is an important aspect of vulnerability because of its direct association with access to resources which affects both baseline vulnerability and coping from the impacts of extreme events. It is argued here that the incidence of poverty, as observed through the quantifiable indicator of income, is a relevant proxy for access to resources, in its multi-faceted forms.

a. Kinanthi is sold for 50 Kg of rice
Having a father who is a jobless and only likes gambling, the life of Kinanthi’s family is difficult to fight against the poverty. Kinanthi has only one sibling, a younger brother to take care of whose name is Hasto. Although there are only two of them, fighting against poverty is very difficult for her parents. The difficult life in a village where Kinanthis’ family live in and supported by the unemployment of her father brings to a poverty life. The poverty itself made her parents to sell her only for fifty kilogram of rice.

The decision to sell Kinanthi to Mas Edi, a friend of Kinanthi’s father in Bandung is the main reason for this family as the form of social vulnerability.  Kinanthi realizes and still remembers how her parents sold her to her father’s friend just for fifty kilogram of rice because of their poverty. She told about her poverty when she is in American Court.

b. Kinanthi becomes a maid for Arabian families
After the accident of Gesit suicide (Kinanthi’s senior in school), Mr. Edi and his wife judged her that she cannot be relied on for their difficult life. Mr. Edi and his wife had a difficult life where they cannot support Kinanthi for her daily needs. For that reason, they have a plan to sell Kinanthi to be a maid in Saudi Arabia.

Selling Kiannthi to other side of her life happens again. This time because of the difficult life or poverty in Mr. Edi's family, he and his wife sold her to an illegal agent for maids who recruit women working as maids  in Saudi Arabia. For this reason, the writer concludes that sending Kinanthi to Arab Saudi as a maid is another trigger from poverty.

2. Stress
Luthar and Zigler (1991: 20) state that socioeconomic factors have also been implicated in stress, in those variables such as low maternal educational status or membership in an ethnic minority group may reflect stressful living circumstances.

a. Stressed after nearly raped
Gesit is Kinanthi’s senior friend in school. Kinanthi never thinks that this young boy has a desire to rape her one day. Kinanthi is very young to understand anything that adults usually do. Gesit’s effort to rape her makes Kinanthi in a very stress condition. She has been silent for many weeks.

Kinanthi tries to express her stressful feeling by writing a letter to Ajuj, her boyfriend in Gunung Kidul. Kinanthi always sent letters to express her feeeling after being sold by her parents. Although she never get any reply from Ajuz, Kinanthi keeps on writing and sending letters to Ajuz every time she feels in trouble and stress.

b. Stressed after being tortured
Having some bad Arabian employers has made Kinanthi becomes vulnerable. A lady employer even tortured her badly. This woman even has an evil wish to make Kinanthi’s life worse and stress by having taking a revenge for her.

Torture by torture and even being abused and raped by evil Arabian employers many times is very difficult for Kinanthi to remember those stressful events. In American court, Kinanthi tried hard to retell what has happened to her to the people who attend in the court.

3. Depression
Roecklenein (2006: 154) describes that in general, depression is a mood state characterized by a sense of inadequacy, feelings of despondency, sadness, pessimism, and decrease in activity or reactivity. Depressive disorders involve a spectrum of psychological dysfunctions that vary in frequency, duration, and severity. At one end of the continuum is the experience of normal depression (a transient period, usually lasting no longer than two weeks), consisting of fatigue and sadness, and precipitated by identifiable stressors.

a. Depressed after being abused
After being tortured and abused by her evil Arabian employers either in Saudi, Kuwait or in America, Kinanthi has a very deep depression. It is hard for her to face the real life living abroad. The city where she lives in even can open her old bad memory.

4.Hazard
Blaikie et al. (1994: 61) states that vulnerability is a relative and specific term, always implying vulnerability to a particular hazard. A person may be vulnerable to loss of property or life from floods but not to drought. The first research theme examines the source (or potential exposure or risk) of biophysical or technological hazards.

a.Earthquake in Bantul
Gunung Kidul is located near Bantul in Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta province. When Kinanthi is in Gunung Kidul after being a successful woman, Bantul hits a hazrd in the form of a big earthquake. The earthquake affects the place where Kinanthis’ parents and even her boyfriend Ajuj’s live.

The hazard occurs in Gunung Kidul affects the life of Kinanthi’s boyfriend, Ajuj. Ajuj’s life is in danger. He is one of the several victims in that hazard or earthquake. Kiannthi feels worries so much after knowing that her boyfriend has become one of the victims in the hazard or earthquake.

5. Loss   
Based on Editorial Team (1992: 4280) in The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language, the word of Loss is defined as ‘the act or an instance of losing, the condition of being deprived or bereaved of something or someone, the amount of something lost, the harm or suffering and caused by losing or being lost’.

a. Losing her best friend, Euis
After being sold by her parents to Mr. Edi, Kinanthi lives peacefully in Bandung. But the terrible thing happens after her only best friend in school, Euis found died because of robbery. Her dead body was found near a merket in Bandung. Losing her only best friend surely has made Kinanthi becomes vulnerable.

b. Losing her boyfriend for 20 years
Ajuz is the only person who always in Kinanthi’s mind. She will never forget him. Ajuz has becomes a soul mate for her. But since she was sold by her parents and moved to Bandung, she lost contact with Ajuz. Twenty years losing her boyfriend has made Kinanthi vulnerable. This feeling is shown when Kinanthi meets Ajuz for the first time after twenty years.

to be continued

Hakikat Skripsi

Hakikat Skripsi

Written by Ari Julianto

Perguruan Tinggi adalah bagian dari sistem pendidikan nasional Indonesia dan merupakan lembaga pendidikan formal yang mempersiapkan Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM) dari level Sekolah
Menengah Umum menuju Pendidikan Tinggi dengan tingkat kemampuan analisis dan pemahaman yang lebih tinggi dari sebelumnya. Perguruan Tinggi menentukan salah satu standar kelulusan mahasiswa untuk memperoleh gelar Strata 1 (S1) adalah dalam bentuk penyusunan tugas akhir atau skripsi.

Tujuan penulisan skripsi tersebut adalah sebagai sarana pelatihan bagi mahasiswa dalam menulis karya ilmiah dengan mengikuti metode penelitian yang benar dan kaidah tata bahasa penulisan ilmiah..

Secara umum, Skripsi didefinisikan sebagai penulisan karya ilmiah berisi hasil studi literatur, studi kasus, studi perbandingan, hasil percobaan yang dilaksanakan baik di laboratorium maupun dilapangan yang disusun secara sistematis berdasarkan ketentuan metode penelitian ilmiah.

Secara khusus Skripsi dapat diartikan sebagai karya tulis yang disusun oleh seorang mahasiswa yang telah menyelesaikan jumlah Sistem Kredit semester (SKS) yang disyaratkan, dengan dibimbing oleh dosen pembimbing, sebagai salah satu persyaratan untuk mencapai gelar pendidikan Strata 1 (S1) atau Sarjana.

Penulisan skripsi ini dimaksudkan sebagai pelatihan bagi mahasiswa untuk menuangkan gagasannya dalam bentuk sebuah karya ilmiah.

Tujuan penulisan skripsi adalah
1. Agar mahasiswa membuktikan kemampuannya dalam menghasilkan suatu sumbangan mandiri dengan menerapkan ilmu yang telah dimilikinya dari kuliah-kuliah, praktikum, kerja praktek/magang dan kegiatan lainnya.
2. Untuk menilai kemampuan mahasiswa dalam memecahkan masalah secara ilmiah atas topik atau pokok bahasan yang sesuai dengan aturan program studi masingmasing.
3. Untuk menilai keterampilan dan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menerapkan metode penelitian secara benar.
4. Untuk menilai kemampuan mahasiswa dalam melakukan penalaran secara logis.
5. Dapat menuangkan penalaran logis secara sistematis dan terstruktur.

Isi dari penulisan skripsi diharapkan memenuhi aspek-aspek
1. Relevan dengan jurusan dari mahasiswa yang bersangkutan.
2. Mempunyai pokok permasalahan yang jelas.
3. Masalah dibatasi, sesempit mungkin.

Dalam penulisan skripsi atau tugas akhir tersebut, mahasiswa harus mampu mentaati norma-norma akademik sebagai berikut:
1. Keaslian
Yaitu mahasiswa dapat menghargai hasil kerja diri sendiri sehingga mahasiswa mampu menghargai hak cipta secara umum.

2. Keterpaduan
Yaitu mahasiswa mampu memahami keterpaduan materi-materi kuliah sesuai dengan kurikulum pendidikan yang diperoleh.

3. Kedalaman
yaitu mahasiswa memiliki keahlian dalam suatu bidang keilmuan yang dimilikinya.

4. Kemanfaatan
Yaitu mahasiswa dapat memberikan kontribusi teoritis ataupun praktis baik pada bidang ilmu yang ditekuni ataupun bagi masyarakat yang lebih luas.

Semoga pembahasan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amien.

Needs Analysis

Needs Analysis 

Written by Ari Julianto




Needs analysis (also known as needs assessment) has a vital role in the process of designing and carrying out any language course, whether it be English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or general English course, and its centrality has been acknowledged by several scholars and authors.

I. Definition
The word of ‘need’ is similar to ‘necessity, exigency, requisite’. These nouns denote a condition in which something essential is required or wanted; they also refer to that which is required or wanted. Based on Editorial Team (1992), the word ‘need’ is defines as (1) A lack of something required or desirable (2) Something required or wanted; a requisite (3) Necessity; obligation (4) A condition of poverty or misfortune.

A needs analysis, write Watkins and Kaufman (1996), identifies the causes of the gaps in results so that appropriate methods, means, tactics, tools, and approaches may be rationally identified and then selected for meeting the needs. It is thus carried out following a needs assessment.

Along with this, Richards and Schmidt (2002: 353) define the word of ‘needs’ bring to analysis which is also called needs assessment (in language teaching and language programme design) the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities.

II. Direct and Indirect Need Assessment
McCawley (2004) describes that there are two types of needs assessment:
1. Direct Needs Assessment
A direct needs assessment is accomplished through formal research that gathers data from clientele. An indirect approach uses secondary data or asks surrogates (advisors) for their opinions about priority needs and issues. The direct assessment will result in data that is more specific to the needs of individuals, and it can be quantitative in terms of probability and confidence.However, direct research requires considerably more resources to design and also requires institutional approval to conduct. Direct assessment should be conducted periodically for major program efforts.

2. Indirect Needs Assessment
An indirect needs assessment can be conducted at any time when an advisory committee is meeting and does not require the same level of investment in the design, implementation, and analysis. However, even for a nonformal assessment, if the results are to be credible, procedures must be followed, and findings must be carefully documented.

III. Philosophies of Needs Analysis
According to Stufflebeam as cited in Brown (1995), four divergent philosophies can arise in a needs analysis:
(1) the democratic
The democratic philosophy is one in which a need is defined as any change that is desired by a majority of the group involved. Whether this group consisted of the students themselves, their teachers, program administrators, or the owners of a private school, the democratic philosophy would lead to a needs analysis that would gather information about the learning most desired by the chosen groups (Brown, 1995).

(2) the analytic
The analytic philosophy is whatever the students will naturally learn next based on what is known about them and the learning processes involved: that is the students are at stage X in their language development, and they next need to learn X+1 or whatever is next in the hierarchy of language development.

(3) the diagnostic
A diagnostic philosophy proposes that a need is anything that would prove harmful if it was missing (Brown,1995).

(4) the discrepancy
the discrepancy philosophy which constitutes the base of this study, is one in which needs are viewed as differences or discrepancies, between a desired performance from the students and what they are actually doing. The discrepancy or gap model is the most straightforward and widely used, especially in education (McKillip,1987). The model emphasizes normative expectations and involves three phases:
(1) goal setting, identifying what ought to be;
(2) performance measurement, determining what is;
(3) discrepancy identification, ordering differences between what ought to be and what is” (McKillip,1987).

McCawley (2004) describes that a needs assessment, thoughtfully performed, provides the following:
1.Impact. Insights about how education and training can impact your audience;
2. Approaches. Knowledge about educational approaches that may be most effective;
3. Awareness of existing programs and of gaps in available training to enable efficient use of resources;
4. Outcomes. Information about the current situation that can be used to document outcomes;
5. Demand. Knowledge about the potential demand for future programs and products;
6. Credibility that the program is serving the target audience,
an important part of communicating greater competence and professionalism to funding authorities who want to know a program or product’s impact.

IV. A Needs Assessment Plan
Kaufman (1986) stresses that a needs assessment plan is a blueprint for collecting information about instructional needs. By its very nature, a needs assessment plan assumes that sufficient justification already exists to solve a human performance problem.

According to Silber and Westgaard (1986), a needs assessment plan should address seven key issues:
1. Objectives.
What results are desired from the needs assessment?
2. Target audience.
Whose needs will be assessed?
3. Sampling procedures.
What methods will be used to select a representative group of people from the target audience for participation in the needs assessment?
4. Data collection methods.
How will information about needs be gathered?
5. Specifications/or instruments and protocols.
What instruments should be used during needs assessment, and how should they be used? What approvals or protocols are necessary for conducting the needs assessment, and how will the instructional designer interact with members of the organization?
6. Methods of data analysis.
How will the information collected during needs assessment be analyzed?
7. Descriptions of how decisions will be made based on the data.
How will needs be identified from the results of data collection and analysis?

However, case studies of needs assessment consistently show that such issues are given varying degrees of emphasis, depending on project constraints and stakeholder expectations as Phillips and Holton (1995) state.

V. The Purpose
Richards (2001) states that needs assesment in language teaching can be used for a number of different purposes, for example:
1. “To find out what language skills a learner needs in order to perform a particular role, such as sales manager, tour guide or university student
2. To help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential students
3· To determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular language skills
4· To identify a change of direction that people in a reference group feel is important
5· To identify a gap between what students are able to do and what  they need to be able to do
6· To collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing”

VI. Steps in Needs Assessment
There are certain kinds of models with different steps suggested for needs assessment. To begin with, steps in needs assessment are stated  as the following by McKillip (1987):
1. Identify users and the uses of the needs assessment
2. Describe the target population and the service environment
3. Identify needs
       - Describe problems
       - Describe solutions
4. Assess the importance of the needs
5. Communicate results

Richards (2001) suggests that decisions on the practical procedures involved in collecting, organizing, analyzing and reporting the information collected be made. He states that there needs to be a clear reason for collecting different kinds of information and so as to ensure that only information that will actually be used is collected.

Richards (2001) state the following procedures which have been used in investigating the language needs of non-English-background students at New Zealand University:
1. literature survey
2. analysis of wide range of survey questionnaires
3. contact with others who had conducted similar surveys
4. interviews with teachers to determine goals
5. identification of participating departments
6. presentation of project proposal to participating departments and identification of liaison person in each department
7. development of a pilot student and staff questionnaire
8. review of the questionnaires by colleagues
9. piloting of the questionnaires
10. selection of staff and student subjects
11. developing a schedule for collecting data
12. administration of questionnaires
13. follow-up interviews with selected participants
14. tabulation of responses
15. analysis of responses
16. writing up of report and recommendations

The above mentioned procedures apply to this particular study except the one suggesting follow-up interviews with selected participants.

McCawley (2004) describes that seven components of a needs assessment plan include:
1. Write objectives:
What is it that you want to learn from the needs assessment?
2. Select audience:
Who is the target audience? Whose needs are you measuring, and to whom will you give the required information?
3. Collect data:
How will you collect data that will tell you what you need to know? Will you collect datadirectly from the target audience or indirectly?
4. Select audience sample:
How will you select a sample of  espondents who represent the target audience?
5. Pick an instrument:
What instruments and techniques will you use to collect data?
6. Analyze data:
How will you analyze the data you collect?


Reference
Brown, J.D.1995. The elements of Language Curriculum. Boston:Heinle and Heinle.

Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.

McCawley, Paul F. 2004. Methods for Conducting an Educational Needs Assessment Guidelines for Cooperative Extension System Professionals.  BUL 870. University of Idaho Extension.

McKillip, J. 198). Need analysis: Tools for the services and education.California: Sage Publications, Inc.

Richards, J.C.2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, Jack C. and Richard Schmidt. 2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. London. Pearson Education Limited.

Stufflebeam, D.L., McCormick, C.H., Brinkerhoff, R.O., Nelson, D.D.1985.Conducting educational needs assessments. Boston: Klower.

Watkins, R, & Kaufman, R .1996.An Update on Relating Needs Assessment and Needs Analysis. Performance Improvement, 35(10), 10-13. Retrieved November 17,2008, from http://www3.interscience.wiley.comljournaI/114120827/abstract.

Error Analysis in Language

Error Analysis in Language

Written by Ari Julianto





Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human being. children leaming their first language, adult native speakers, second language leamers; they all make errors which have a different ñame according to the group committing the error.

Error analysis enables teachers to find out the sources of errors and take pedagogical precautions towards them. Thus, the analysis of learner language has become an essential need to overcome some questions and propose solutions regarding different aspects.

I. Definitions
According to Lennon (1991) an error is "a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers' native speakers counterparts". Meanwhile Crystal, D. (1999) defines error analysis in language teaching and learning is the study of the unacceptable forms produced by someone learning a language, especially a foreign language.

II. Error Vs Mistake
Mistakes can be self-corrected when attention is called. Whereas, an error is the use of linguistic item in a way that a fluent or native speaker of the language regards it as showing faulty or incomplete learning. In other words, it occurs because the learner does not know what is correct,and thus it cannot be self-corrected.

To distinguish between an error and mistake, Ellis (1997) suggests two ways.
1. to check the consistency of learner’s performance. If he sometimes uses the correct form and sometimes the wrong one, it is a mistake. However, if he always uses it incorrectly, it is then an error.
2. to ask learner to try to correct his own deviant utterance. Where he is unable to, the deviations are errors; where he is successful, they are mistakes.

There are those so-called “errors” or “mistakes” that are more correctly described as lapses. A mistake refers to a performance error, it is a failure to make use of a known system. Everybody makes mistakes in both native and second language situations. Brown (1987) describes that normally native speakers are able to recognise and correct such “lapses” or “mistakes” which are not the result of a deficiency in competence, but the result of imperfection in the process of producing speech.

Errors are deviances that are due to deficient competence(i-e “knowledge” of the language, which may or may not be conscious). As they are due to deficient competence they tend to be systematic and not self correctable.

Whereas “mistakes” or “lapses” that are due to performance deficiencies  and arise from lack of attention, slips of memory, anxiety possibly caused by  pressure of time etc.They are not systematic and readily identifiable and self correctable as Corder (1987) states.

III. The Purposes
Sercombe (2000) explains that error analysis serves 3 purposes,
1.to find out the level of language proficiency the learner has reached.
2.to obtain information about common difficulties in language learning.
3.to find out how people learn a language.

IV. Error Categories
Brown (1987) mentions a major distinction between “overt” and “covert” errors.
- Overtly erroneous utterances are completely ungrammatical at the sentence level.
- Covertly erroneous utterances are grammatically well-formed at the sentence level, but are not interpretable within the context.

Meanwhile, Corder (1973) classifies the errors in terms of the difference between the learners utterance and the reconstructed version. He describes that there are four categories:
1. omission of some required element;
Morphological omission *A strange thing happen to me yesterday.
Syntactical omission * Must say also the names?

2. addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element;
In morphology * The books is here.
In syntax * The London
In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago.

3. selection of an incorrect element; and
In morphology * My friend is oldest than me.
In syntax * I want that he comes here

4 misordering of the elements
In pronunciation * fignisicant for ‘significant’; *prulal for ‘plural’
In morphology * get upping for ‘getting up’
In syntax * He is a dear to me friend.
In lexicon * key car for ‘car key’

Richards (1974) identifies the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors:
1. Interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other,
2. Intralingual errors, subdivided into
    - errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of
       the rules,    
    - errors due to the false concept hypothesis, which demónstrate the general characteristics of rule leaming
3. Developmental errors when the leamer builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience.

According to Corder (1987), the system used for the description of learner’s errors must be one having two essential characteristics:
1) the system must be well-developed and highly elaborated, since many errors made by even beginners are remarkably complex.
2) The system should be as simple, self-explanatory and easily learnable as possible.


Reference

Brown. 1987. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Prentice Hall Regents.
Corder, S.P. .1973. Introducing Applied Linguistics. Middlesex, Penguin.
Corder, S.P. 1987. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Cristal, D. 1999. The Penguin Dictionary of Language (2nd ed.). Penguin.

Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Lennon, P.. 1991. Error: Some Problems of Definition and Identification, in Applied
Linguistic, vol. 12, num. 2, Oxford, pp. 180-195.
Richards, J.C. 1974. Error Analysis. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman.
 Secrombe, P.G. 2000. Learner Language and Consideration of idiosyncrasies by students of English as a second or foreign  language in the context of Brunei Darulsalam. In: Strategies teaching and learning in the 21st century. In A.M. Nooret (Eds.), Proceedings of European Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 8, November 03 .

Hopefully today's posting will eb useful for all of us. Amien.

The Five 'Ws' for Research

The Five 'Ws' for Research
 






Written by
Catherine Dawson in Practical Research Methods A user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects. How To Books Ltd. Oxford. 2002. pp4-8.


When you start to think about your research project, a useful way of remembering the important questions to ask is to think of the five ‘Ws’:
- What?
- Why?
- Who?
- Where? and
- When?

Once you have thought about these five ‘Ws’ you can move on to think about how you are going to collect your data.

1. What?
What is your research? This question needs to be answered as specifically as possible. One of the hardest parts in the early stages is to be able to define your project, so much research fails because the researcher has been unable to do this. A useful tip is to sum up, in one sentence only, your research. If you are unable to do this, the chances are your research topic is too broad, ill thought out or too obscure.

2. Why?
Why do you want to do the research? What is its purpose? Okay, you might have been told to do some research by your tutor or by your boss, but there should be another reason why you have chosen your particular subject. It might be solely to do with the fact that you are interested in the topic. This is a good start as you need to be interested in your research if you are to keep up your enthusiasm and remain motivated. Or you might have identified a gap in the research literature–this is good as it shows you have carried out careful background research. Or perhaps you want to try to obtain funding for a particular service or enterprise and you need to do some research first to find out if there is demand for what you are proposing.

Whatever your reason, think very carefully about why you are doing the research as this will affect your topic, the way you conduct the research and the way in which you report the results. If you’re doing it for a university dissertation or project, does your proposed research provide the opportunity to reach the required intellectual standard? Will your research generate enough material to write a dissertation of the required length? Or will your research generate too much data that would be impossible to summarise into a report of the required length?

If you’re conducting research for funding purposes, have you found out whether your proposed funding body requires the information to be presented in a specific format? If so, you need to plan your research in a way which will meet that format.

3. Who?
Who will be your participants? (In this book, people who take part in research will be called participants or respondents, rather than ‘subjects’, which is a term that I have never liked.) At this stage of the research process, you needn’t worry too much about exactly how many participants will take part in your research as this will be covered later. However, you should think about the type of people with whom you will need to get in touch with and whether it will be possible for you to contact them. If you have to conduct your research within a particular time scale, there’s little point choosing a topic which would include people who are difficult or expensive to contact. Also, bear in mind that the Internet now provides opportunities for contacting people cheaply, especially if you’re a student with free internet access.

4. Where?
Where are you going to conduct your research? Thinking about this question in geographical terms will help you to narrow down your research topic. Also, you need to think about the resources in terms of budget and time that are available to you. If you’re a student who will not receive travel expenses or any other out of pocket expenses, choose a location close to home, college or university. If you’re a member of a community group on a limited budget, only work in areas within walking distance which will cut down on travel expenses.

Also, you need to think about where you’ll be carrying out your research in terms of venue. If you’re going to conduct interviews or focus groups, where will you hold them? Is there a room at your institution which would be free of charge, or are you going to conduct them in participants’ own homes? Would it be safe for you to do so? Would you be comfortable doing so? If you’ve answered ‘no’ to either of these last two questions, maybe you need to think again about your research topic. In 15 years I have encountered only one uncomfortable situation in a stranger’s home. It can happen and you must never put yourself in a dangerous situation. Think very carefully about whether your chosen topic and method might have an influence on personal safety.

5. When?
When are you going to do your research? Thinking about this question will help you to sort out whether the research project you have proposed is possible within your time scale. It will also help you to think more about your participants, when you need to contact them and whether they will be available at that time. For example, if you want to go into schools and observe classroom practice, you wouldn’t choose to do this research during the summer holiday. It might sound obvious, but I have found some students present a well-written research proposal which, in practical terms, will not work because the participants will be unavailable during the proposed data collection stage.

Once you have thought about these five ‘Ws’, try to sum up your proposed project in one sentence. When you have done this, take it to several people, including your boss and/or tutor, and ask them if it makes sense. Do they understand what your research is about? If they don’t, ask them to explain their confusion, revise your statement and take it back to them.

The Study of Written Text and Writing

The Study of Written Text and Writing

 
Written by
Charles Bazerman and Paul Prior in What Writing Does and How It Does It An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.2004.pp 1-3.




Discourse analysis has grown in popularity as a major analytical method in social science research fields such as communications studies, sociology, and anthropology. As well, it has been an increasingly popular method for research, practical applications, and pedagogical assessment in composition, education, and applied linguistics/ESL. Most discourse analysis has, however, been focused on spoken language. Yet a number of critical social domains involve significant written text. Think, for example, of schooling, scientific and disciplinary knowledge, cultural production in the arts, the everyday life of government and corporate institutions, the public spaces of news, the diverse worlds of electronic text on the World Wide Web, and other forms of widespread cultural self-representation.

Looking at only the spoken interchanges in such educational, institutional, professional, and social settings gives a limited and potentially misleading picture of the ways that language enters into the dynamic unfolding of situations and events. In extending the reach of discourse analysis to engage with written text, we would do well, however, to remember some of the lessons learned in analysis of spoken language: that language is emergent, multiform, negotiated in the process, meaningful in the uptake, accomplishing social acts.Analysis of writing must go beyond considering the written text as an inert object, complete in itself as a bearer of abstract meanings.

Traditional forms of text analysis developed within school and in such academic disciplines as literary studies, rhetoric, and philosophy have told us much about what texts can mean. These modes of analysis, developed mainly for purposes of interpretation and criticism, by and large have not been brought into dialogue with discourse analysis as currently conceived and practiced within the social sciences. Yet they form the basic way most of us approach texts and represent what we are likely to think of as textual analysis. In order to understand how textual analysis can address issues beyond interpretation and criticism, we must be able to see the relationship between traditional forms of text analysis and the newer methods considered part of discourse analysis.

To understand writing, we need to explore the practices that people engage in to produce texts as well as the ways that writing practices gain their meanings and functions as dynamic elements of specific cultural settings. The absence of attention to writing as a social and productive practice has come about for reasons we discuss below. The effect, however, has been to severely limit the analysis of written text, closing off many lines of inquiry into how and why texts come to be as they are and what effects they have on the world.

Why Analyze Written Texts and Writing?
Traditionally the motivation for analyzing texts has been to understand them more deeply and/or to examine the limitations of their meanings. Text analysis was earliest developed within scriptural religions, where people were highly motivated to find all the meaning they could out of holy books such as the Bible, Talmud, Koran, or Baghavad Gita. The emergence of philosophy and other intellectual endeavors involved criticizing claims of opponents, which motivated analysis of texts to find flaws in reasoning, confusions, or other limitations. Similarly as law became a matter of written law, written court precedents, and written legal briefs, it became important to determine what the law really said, what the loopholes were, how precedents could be used to argue one side or another, what the weaknesses and strengths were of opposing arguments.

Rhetoric was first a productive discipline, concerned about how to make civic texts that would persuade others of an argument, establish the ethos (credibility and status) of the rhetor, or create a climate of feeling that would incline others toward certain views and actions. Rhetoric, however, also fostered a critical reading practice, reading civic texts for the means of rhetorical action, for the presence of tropes and topics, the signs of audience and authorial construction.

Literary studies was premised on the importance of certain cultural texts, which may be difficult to understand because of their historical distance,cultural difference, profound meaning, or complex literary technique. Thus,it required ways of analyzing those texts in order to understand their meaning.

Students, consequently, needed to be introduced to the techniques of analytical reading so as to have access to the culture of these texts. Cultural and historical criticism then served to characterize the particularity of the views and experiences in the texts. In all of these modes of analysis, the primary focus has been on uncovering or criticizing the meaning of the text.

This concern for meaning is natural enough in reading and responding to other people’s thought expressed in the writing. It is the natural stance, as it were, of the reader to be looking for meaning. However, there are many other questions that can be asked about texts and we can learn many other things about texts beyond what they mean and whether we approve of the meanings. We can consider - how texts direct people’s attention to various objects and concerns;

- how different linguistic, rhetorical, and graphic resources make possible the creation of meaning;

- how texts depend on and use other texts; how texts influence people’s beliefs and actions;

- how people learn to recognize, read, and produce genres (texts of certain types);

- how people actually go about producing texts; and

- how social systems of activity depend on and promote particular kinds of texts.


I hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.